✅Explanation: Gluten is the primary protein found in wheat. Gluten is a combination of two proteins, gliadin and glutenin, and is responsible for the elasticity and structure in bread and other baked goods.📌Other Options Explanations:● (a) Zein: Zein is a protein found in corn.● (c) Dhurin: Dhurin is a cyanogenic glycoside, a naturally occurring compound found in certain plants, including sorghum and cassava. It's a toxic substance that, when broken down, releases cyanide, which can interfere with the body's ability to use oxygen● (d) Ricinin: Ricinin is a toxin alkaloid found in castor beans.🔑Key Points  Gluteno The protein which is naturally found in some grains including wheat, barley and rye is Gluten. Gluten protein acts like a binder, holding food together and adding a ‘stretch’ property. It is found naturally in some grains, including wheat, barley, and rye. Wheat and foods containing wheat are widely available in our food supply and are most often associated to gluten. The 75–85% of the total protein in bread wheat is made up of gluten. Glutens, particularly Triticeae glutens, have exceptional viscoelastic and adhesive qualities that give dough its elasticity, aid in rising and maintaining its shape, and frequently result in a chewy texture in the final product. Some people may experience negative, inflammatory, immune, and autoimmune reactions when exposed to gluten. The spectrum of gluten-related disorders includes dermatitis herpetiformis, gluten ataxia, and other neurological conditions, as well as celiac disease, which affects 1-2% of the general population and non-celiac gluten sensitivity, which affects 0.5–13% of the general population. The gluten-free diet is used to treat these disorders.🛑Additional Information: Proteinso Large, intricate molecules known as proteins play a variety of vital functions in the body.o They are crucial for the structure, operation, and control of the body's tissues and organs and carry out the majority of their job inside cells.o Plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds) frequently lack one or more essential amino acids, but animal-based foods (meat, chicken, fish, eggs, and dairy products) are frequently good sources of complete protein.

✅Explanation: Hordeum vulgare is the botanical name for six-row barley. This type of barley has six rows of grains on its spike and is commonly used in animal feed, brewing, and certain food products.📌Other Options Explanations:● (b) Hordeum distichon: This is the botanical name for two-row barley, which has two rows of grains and is preferred for malting and brewing high-quality beers due to its lower protein and higher starch content.🔑Key Points Barley Family-Poaceae/ Graminae Chromosome no.2n = 14 Protein content -11.5% Huskless variety of barley isDolma.Varietal Groups of Barley: Hordeum vulgareo Six-rowed barley. Hordeum irregulareo May be either six-rowed or two-rowed barley. Hordeum distichono Two-rowed barley only.🛑Additional Information: Characteristics of Hordeum vulgare (Six-Rowed Barley):Number of Rows:Produces six rows of kernels on the spike.Grain Yield:Typically has higher grain yield compared to two-row barley due to the increased number of kernels per spike.Protein Content:Higher protein content, making it suitable for animal feed but less ideal for malting quality in beer production.Enzyme Activity:Contains higher enzyme activity, beneficial for brewing processes that require this characteristic.Adaptability:Well-suited for a variety of climates and soils, showing good adaptability.Spike Structure:The spike has fertile florets in all three spikelets of each rachis node, leading to six rows of grains.Uses:Primarily used for animal feed, brewing (especially for enzyme-rich malt), and occasionally for human consumption in food products.Geographic Distribution:Widely grown across the world, especially in regions where six-row barley is preferred for livestock feed or industrial uses.Straw Quality:Straw is often used as fodder for livestock due to its higher volume and decent nutritional value. Resistance:Tends to have moderate resistance to some diseases, although specific susceptibility depends on the variety.

✅Explanation: The Technology Mission on Oilseeds (TMO) was launched in 1986 by the Government of India. Its main objective was to increase the production of oilseeds in the country to reduce dependency on imports and achieve self-sufficiency in edible oils.This initiative focused on improving production, processing, and marketing of oilseeds through the adoption of modern agricultural techniques and providing support to farmers.🔑Key Points National Oilseeds Development Project (NODP): In 1985-86, the government launched a Technology Mission on Oilseeds to improve productivity. This resulted in some growth but then growth in this field has been sluggish only. The current Government is promoting National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP) during 2012-17. This mission has some clear-cut objectives such as:o Increasing Seed Replacement Ratio (SRR) in oil crops with a focus on Varietal Replacement;o Increasing irrigation coverage under oilseeds from 26% to 36%;o Diversification of area from low-yielding cereals crops to oilseeds crops; inter-cropping of oilseeds with cereals/ pulses/ sugarcane;o Use of fallow land after paddy /potato cultivation;Expansion of cultivation of Oil Palm and tree-borne oilseeds in watersheds and wastelands;o Increasing availability of quality planting material enhancing procurement of oilseeds and collection; andProcessing of tree-borne oilseeds. The mission is implemented with funds in 75:25 Centre-state ratios. There are three mini missions in this scheme viz. Mini-mission-I, II and III. Mini Mission-I focuses on oilseeds; Mini Mission II on oil palm and Mini Mission III on tree-borne oilseed (TBOs).

✅Explanation: The WHO/FAO (World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization) recommends a minimum daily intake of 40 grams of pulses per person. This recommendation is based on the nutritional value of pulses, which are excellent sources of protein, fiber, and essential micronutrients.Consuming 40 g/day of pulses contributes significantly to a balanced diet, addressing protein-energy malnutrition and ensuring sufficient dietary fiber intake.

✅Explanation: The recovery rate of sugar from sugarcane refers to the percentage of sugar extracted from the total weight of sugarcane.In India, the typical sugar recovery rate ranges between 8-10%, depending on factors such as the sugarcane variety, climatic conditions, cultivation practices, and the efficiency of sugar mills.🛑Additional Information:  Sugar cane is one of the most important cash crops grown in India. Recently, the production of Sugarcane has been increasing in Southern India which was centered to states like Uttar Pradesh in the North. One of the major reasons for this is the high sucrose content from the sugar cane obtained in Southern parts of India. Ethanol is also produced by the sugarcane industry

✅Explanation: The optimal plant population per hectare for linseed (Linum usitatissimum) is approximately 3,33,000 plants. This ensures proper spacing and population density, which are crucial for optimal growth, resource utilization, and yield.🛑Additional Information: Linseed/Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) 🔑Key Points :Historical Significance:Linseed is one of the oldest cultivated crops, grown for oil and fiber.Cultivation in India:Primarily cultivated as an annual rabi oilseed crop under low-input and moisture-stress conditions.Classification Based on Use:Seed Type Linseed:Varieties grown specifically for oil production.Flax:Varieties cultivated for fiber production only.Dual-Purpose Linseed:Varieties grown for both seed (oil) and fiber. Importance of Variety Selection:o Selecting the right variety and obtaining quality seed are crucial for achieving high yield. Best Suited Dual-Purpose Varieties for the Region:o Jeewano Nagarkoto Him Alsi-2

✅Explanation: Linoleic acid is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid found in safflower oil. It is known to help reduce blood cholesterol levels by promoting the reduction of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, often referred to as "bad" cholesterol, and by increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or "good" cholesterol.📌Other Options Explanations: (b) Oleic acid: Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid found in olive oil and some other oils. (c) Stearic acid: Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in animal fats and some plant fats. (d) Palmitic acid: Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in palm oil and animal fats, and while it has some health implication. 🔑Key Points  Linoleic acid (LA) is an omega-6 fatty acid which is considered an essential fatty acid because it cannot be synthesized by humans.  In all omega-6 (ω6 or n-6) fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid. Linoleic acid is a colorless to straw colored liquid. It is a polyunsaturated fatty acid essential to human diet. After consumption and absorption by enterocytes lining the small intestines, linoleic acid is packaged into chylomicrons as phospholipids, triacylglycerols, or cholesterol esters and enters the general circulation (subclavian vein) via the thoracic duct. Linoleic acid is delivered to hepatic and extrahepatic tissues as chylomicrons are delipidated en route to and cleared by the liver during its transition to much smaller remnant particles. After cellular uptake, the fate of linoleic acid is determined by the needs of the tissue, i.e., incorporation into membrane phospholipids, desaturation and elongation, etc. The major dietary sources of linoleic acid are vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, meats, and eggs.

✅Explanation: Morphine is the most important alkaloid found in opium. It is a potent pain-relieving compound (analgesic) and is the basis for many opioid drugs used in medical settings for pain management.📌Other Options Explanations:● Nicotine: Nicotine is an alkaloid that is found in tobacco.● Nimbidin: Nimbidin is a compound that is found in neem leaves. It has a number of medicinal properties.🛑Additional Information:  Botanical Name:Opium poppy is botanically known as Papaver somniferum.It belongs to the family Papaveraceae. Opium Extraction:Opium is obtained by air-drying the milky latex or resin from the seed pod of the poppy plant. Alkaloid Composition:The latex is rich in benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs), which are stored in laticifer (specialized internal secretory cells). Popular Uses:Opium poppy is also known for its attractive flowers and seeds, which are commonly used in confectioneries. Classification of Opium Alkaloids:Natural Alkaloids: Derived directly from opium.Semi-Synthetic Alkaloids: Modified versions of natural alkaloids.Synthetic Alkaloids: Created through chemical synthesis to mimic the effects of natural opium alkaloids. Opiates:The active ingredients derived naturally from opium are known as opiates. Examples of Opium Derivatives:Heroin (diacetylmorphine),Methadone,Hydrocodone (found in Lortab, Norco, Vicodin),Oxycodone (found in OxyContin),Fentanyl,And other synthetic or semi-synthetic opioids

✅Explanation: The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is headquartered in Hyderabad, Telangana, India. ICRISAT is an international agricultural research organization that focuses on improving the livelihoods of people in semi-arid regions of the world by conducting research on crops such as sorghum, millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut. 🔑Key Points  International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT):o ICRISAT focuses on legumes and cereals, including millets, that are important for food security in the semi-arid areas of the world.o The main genebank collection is at the centre’s headquarters in Hyderabad, India, and there are three regional gene banks in Kenya, Niger, and Zimbabwe.o More than 126,830 accessions are listed in Genesys.o The International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is located in Hyderabad.o Eight nations have come together at the ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics) to understand the challenges and find solutions to tackle the rapidly growing problem of Fall Armyworm (FAW).o Representatives from Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and some other South and South-East Asian countries are attending a regional workshop on ‘Fall Armyworm management in Asia’.o The U.S. is working to address the FAW in several African countries.o As the FAW has emerged in South and South-East Asia, collaboration is urgently required to manage its spread and minimise crop loss. 🛑Additional Information: Traditional cultivars and landraces make up the bulk of the holdings (82%) and about 16% are breeding and research lines. About 2% are wild relatives. ICRISAT scientists developed the idea of mini-core collections, a representative sample of about 1% of the accessions of a species, selected to help breeders to find the traits they are interested in. There are mini-core collections of all ICRISAT mandate crops. One example is the groundnut mini-core collection, which consists of only 184 accessions that include traits for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and for good agronomic and nutritional status. The ICRISAT genebank has distributed more than 1.4 million samples of 106,000 accessions to 147 countries. ICRISAT accessions are part of the pedigree of more than 800 improved varieties released by national partners. ICRISAT has itself released several improved varieties that make use of genebank accessions, including pearl millets rich in micronutrients. About 88% of the collection is safely duplicated at the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, with additional smaller safety duplicates in Niger and at ICARDA.

✅Explanation: A Khadin is a traditional water harvesting structure found in western Rajasthan, particularly used in arid and semi-arid regions. It is designed to capture and store rainwater, which is critical in this region due to its water scarcity and low rainfall. The Khadin helps recharge groundwater and is often used for agricultural purposes in the area.🔑Key Points  Khadin:o A khadin, also called a dhora, is an ingenious construction designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture.o Its main feature is a very long (100-300 m) earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes lying below gravelly uplands. Sluices and spillways allow excess water to drain off.o The khadin system is based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this water-saturated land for crop production.o First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer, western Rajasthan in the 15th century.o Since 15th century, people of extremely dry Western Rajasthan around Jaisalmer region follows a traditional runoff farming, a typical land-use system widely prevalent in highly arid areas of Thar desert which is commonly known as khadin cultivation in which rainwater harvested in the lower reaches during Kharif is used for rabi crops cultivation.o It helps in recharge of groundwater apart from enabling growing Kharif and rabi crops depending upon the amount of rainfall and consequent runoff.o However, the crop productivity of khadin cultivation remains low due to edapho-climatic constraints including nutrients deficiency, salt encrustation, sodicity and waterlogging.

✅Explanation: An isohyet is a line on a map or chart that connects points receiving equal amounts of rainfall over a specified period. Isohyets are used in meteorology and climatology to represent rainfall distribution over a region.📌Other Options Explanations: (a) Height: Height is measured in meters or fee. (b) Altitude: Altitude refers to the height above sea level. (d) Temperature: Temperature is represented by isotherms.🛑Additional Information:  Isohytes are the imaginary lines joining the points of equal rainfall. An isohyet is a contour line drawn on maps that connect places or points that received the same amount of rainfall or precipitation at a given period of time. It is used to represent areas that received similar amount of rain or equal density of rain during a particular storm. These lines help to estimate the various rainfall parameters like the minimum and maximum, average rainfall of a particular region. A map formed by these isohyetal lines is called the isohyetal map.A list of lines and the parameters they represent:Isohyets: Points of equal rainfallContour: Points of equal elevationIsoclinic: Points of equal dip (magnetic dip)Isogonic: Points of equal magnetic declinationIsobars: Points of equal pressureIsohume: Points of equal humidityIsotherm: Points of equal temperatureIsohel: Points of equal duration of sunshine

✅Explanation: Short-range weather forecasting typically refers to weather predictions for a period of 1 to 2 days ahead. This range allows meteorologists to make relatively accurate forecasts based on current weather patterns and observations. Forecasters use a variety of data, including satellite imagery, radar data, and atmospheric models, to make short-range forecasts.

✅Explanation: An anemometer is the instrument used to measure wind velocity or wind speed. It typically consists of cups or blades that rotate when the wind blows, and the speed of rotation is used to determine the wind speed.📌Other Options Explanations:● Wind vane: A wind vane is a device that indicates the direction from which the wind is blowing.● Pyrheliometer: A pyrheliometer is a device that is used to measure the direct irradiance of solar radiation.● Pyranometer: A pyranometer is a device that is used to measure the total irradiance of solar radiation, including both direct and indirect radiation.🔑Key Points Anemometer: Anemometer, a device for measuring the speed of airflow in the atmosphere, in wind tunnels, and in other gas-flow applications. Most widely used for wind-speed measurements is the revolving cup electric anemometer, in which the revolving cups drive an electric generator. The output of the generator operates an electric meter that is calibrated in wind speed. The useful range of this device is approximately from 5 to 100 knots. A propeller may also be used to drive the electric generator, as in the propeller anemometer. In another type of wind-driven unit, revolving vanes operate a counter, the revolutions being timed by a stopwatch and converted to airspeed. This device is especially suited for the measurement of low airspeeds.

✅Explanation: The South-West monsoon is the primary monsoon that affects most parts of India, bringing the majority of the country's rainfall. It typically begins in June and lasts until September, originating from the southwest and carrying moisture from the Indian Ocean.📌Other Options Explanations: North-East monsoon: The North-East monsoon brings rainfall to the eastern coast of India during the winter months (December to February). Winter rains: Winter rains are occasional rainfall events that occur in northern India during the winter months. Western disturbances: Western disturbances are weather systems that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and bring rain and snowfall to the northern parts of India during the winter months.🔑Key Points  Southwest monsoon:o The Southwest monsoon is commonly known as the summer monsoon.o It enters India from the Southwest direction.o In the southwest monsoon, the wind blows from sea to land.o This brings heavy rainfall between June to September month.🛑Additional Information: The Northeast monsoon is commonly known as the winter monsoon. Northeast monsoon:o The monsoon enters India from the Northeast direction.o In the Northeast monsoon, the wind blows from land to sea.o The Northeast monsoon brings rain to south India mainly in Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.o During the Northeast monsoon, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand experiences precipitation in the form of snowfall.

✅Explanation: Zein is the chief protein found in maize (corn). It is a type of prolamin and is primarily stored in the endosperm of the maize kernel. Zein plays a key role in the structure and texture of maize-based products.📌Other Options Explanations:● Casein: Casein is a protein found in milk.● Lacto-albumin: Lacto-albumin is another protein found in milk, found in the whey portion of milk.● Oryzine: Oryzine is a minor protein found in rice.🔑Key Points  Zein is a class of prolamin proteins that are mainly present in maize. All the zein polypeptides are products of different structural genes. In general, maize grain is low in protein content (9.1%), oil (4.4%), and ash (1.4%), but very high in starch content (73.4%) when considered on a dry matter basis. Zein is usually manufactured as a powder from corn gluten meal. Pure zein is clear, odourless, tasteless, hard, water-insoluble, and edible, and it has a variety of industrial and food uses.

✅Explanation: Beta-carotene is a precursor to vitamin A and is primarily found in green leafy vegetables and yellow-orange fruits and vegetables. It is responsible for the orange and yellow pigments in plants and is abundant in foods like spinach, kale, and carrots.🔑Key Points : Like all carotenoids, beta carotene is an antioxidant. An antioxidant is a thing that prevents other molecules from being oxidised; it shields the body against free radicals. Cells are harmed by free radicals due to oxidation. Free radical damage can eventually result in a number of chronic disorders. Numerous studies have demonstrated how consuming antioxidants in the diet strengthens the immune systems of individuals, guards against free radicals, and reduces the risk of heart disease and cancer. According to some research, those who eat at least four servings per day of beta-carotene-rich fruits and/or vegetables had a lower chance of developing heart disease or cancer. Yellow, orange, and green leafy fruits and vegetables like carrots, spinach, lettuce, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, broccoli, and cantaloupe are the highest sources of beta-carotene.🛑Additional Information:: If a person eats a variety of veggies, they can typically obtain enough beta carotene through food alone without the need for supplements. For beta carotene, there is no set Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA). The RDA for vitamin A includes the RDA for beta-carotene. The daily requirements for vitamin A are provided as Retinol Activity Equivalents since preformed vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids can both be found in diet (RAE). This explains the variations between provitamin A carotenoids like beta carotene and preformed vitamin A (found in animal meals and supplementation).

✅Explanation: Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is often used to improve the drought hardiness of maize. It helps in enhancing the plant's ability to withstand water stress by improving its water retention capacity and supporting cell wall stability.📌Other Options Explanations:● 2,4-D: 2,4-D is a herbicide used to control broadleaf weeds.● Atrazine: Atrazine is another herbicide used to control weeds in maize.🛑Additional Information: Chemical use to remove weeds from growing plants is known as weedicides. Chemical used to remove insects or prevent them from destroying the plants or any destructive behaviors is known as Insecticides. Plant growing where it is not wanted is normally known as weed. 2,4 -D IUPAC name is 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. 2,4-D is an herbicide and secondarily a plant growth regulator. Used in destroying broadleaf weeds.  It is also known with the name of weedicides. It comes in several chemical forms, including salts, esters, and acid forms. It is also used in regulating the growth of citrus plants.

✅Explanation: Atrazine is a widely used pre-emergence herbicide in maize fields. It is effective in controlling a broad spectrum of weeds by inhibiting their growth before they emerge from the soil.📌Other Options Explanations: (a) 2,4-D: 2,4-D is a selective herbicide primarily used for broadleaf weed control, and it is typically applied post-emergence. (c) Fluchlorin: Fluchlorin is a pre-emergence herbicide, but it is not as commonly used for maize as Atrazine.Important Points Atrazine -o It is used to prevent against broad-leaf and grassy weeds in crops like maize.o Pure atrazine is a white-coloured powder.o Its usage is restricted by governments because of its adverse effect of water pollution.

✅Explanation: Orobanche species (commonly known as broomrape) are complete parasitic weeds. They do not perform photosynthesis and rely entirely on their host plants for water and nutrients. They attach to the roots of other plants, extracting resources from them, making them holoparasites (complete parasites).📌Other Options Explanations: (a) Phalaris minor:Phalaris minor (wild oat) is a grassy weed. It is a non-parasitic weed that competes for nutrients and water in the soil. (c) Trianthena spp: They are common weeds. (d) Argemone mexicana: Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy) is an her.

✅Explanation: Mycoherbicides are herbicides that are made from fungi. These fungi are used to control weeds by infecting them and causing disease, which helps in reducing weed populations. They are a natural and environmentally friendly alternative to chemical herbicides.📌Other Options Explanations: (a) Bacteria: Bacterial-based herbicides are called bioherbicides. (b) Nematodes: Nematodes are used in biological control of pests. (d) Virus: Viruses are used in other biological control application.🛑Additional Information: Characteristics of Mycoherbicides:Biological origin: Mycoherbicides are formulated using fungi that specifically target and infect weeds. These fungi can be naturally occurring or genetically modified to enhance their weed-killing properties.Selective action: Mycoherbicides often show selectivity towards specific weed species, meaning they primarily affect the target weed without harming other plants, including crops.Mode of action: Fungi used in mycoherbicides infect weeds by releasing spores that attack plant tissues, leading to disease and death. The fungal infection disrupts plant growth, leading to reduced vigor, stunted growth, or even plant death.Environmentally friendly: Unlike chemical herbicides, mycoherbicides are biodegradable and generally have minimal environmental impact, reducing the risk of soil and water contamination.Low toxicity to non-target organisms: Mycoherbicides are typically safe for humans, animals, and beneficial insects because they are selective and do not release harmful chemicals.Pest and weed management: These biocontrol agents can be used to manage invasive species and weeds that are resistant to conventional herbicides, offering an alternative in integrated pest management (IPM) systems.Sustainable: Mycoherbicides offer a sustainable solution to weed control by reducing the reliance on chemical herbicides, thus minimizing the environmental footprint of agriculture.Slow acting: The action of mycoherbicides may be slower compared to chemical herbicides, as fungi need time to grow and infect the weed, but they are effective over the long term.Application method: Mycoherbicides are typically applied as a spray or as a soil treatment, and their effectiveness can be influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.Examples:Colletotrichum gloeosporioides: A fungus used as a mycoherbicide for controlling weed species like Cuscuta (dodder).Puccinia canaliculata: A rust fungus used to control Ageratina adenophora (a weed species).

✅Explanation: Chenopodium album, commonly known as lamb's quarters, is a highly prolific weed that can produce a large number of seeds. On average, a single plant can produce up to 196,000 seeds, making it a very successful weed species in terms of seed production.

✅Explanation: Saccharum spontaneum, commonly known as wild sugarcane or Indian grass, is a perennial weed. It grows year after year from the same root system, making it capable of re-sprouting after being cut or damaged.📌Other Options Explanations: Biennial: Biennial weeds complete their life cycle in two years.● Annual: Annual weeds complete their life cycle in one year.

✅Explanation: Paraquat is a non-selective contact herbicide, meaning it kills a wide range of plants it comes into contact with. It is not selective, so it damages any plant it touches, whether it's a weed or a desirable crop. It works by disrupting the plant's cellular processes, causing rapid damage.📌Other Options Explanations:● Selective herbicide: A herbicide designed to kill specific types of plants without harming others.● Selective contact herbicide: A herbicide that kills certain types of plants upon contact but not others.🛑Additional Information:  Herbicide is derived from Latin word, Herba (plant) and Caedre (to kill), means chemicals that kills or suppress the unwanted vegetations.Based on mode of action:1. Contact herbicide: These herbicides are being less mobility, kills the plant primarily by contact with the plant tissue. Paraquat, diquat, propanil, oxyflurfen are examples of systemic herbicides.2. Systemic or translocated herbicides: Herbicide moves within the plant from the point of treatment to its other part to variable extent. All herbicides except contact are systemic in nature. 2, 4-D, atrazine, pendimethalin, glyphosate, metribuzin are systemic herbicides. Atrazine is systemic and contact herbicide.

✅Explanation: The interaction between Rhizobium (a type of nitrogen-fixing bacteria) and legumes (such as beans, peas, and clover) is an agriculturally beneficial interaction. The Rhizobium bacteria form nodules on the roots of legumes, where they convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, thus improving soil fertility naturally. This relationship is crucial for the growth of legumes and benefits crop rotation practices.📌Other Options Explanations:● Puccinia graminis - Wheat: This represents a harmful parasitic interaction. Puccinia graminis is a fungus that causes stem rust disease in wheat, damaging crops.● Agrobacterium tumefaciens - Fruit tree: This interaction can be either beneficial or detrimental. Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a bacterium that causes crown gall disease on fruit trees. ● Erwinia amylovora - Apple: This represents a harmful, disease-causing interaction. Erwinia amylovora is the bacterium responsible for fire blight, a destructive disease affecting apples and other related fruit trees.🛑Additional Information: ● Rhizobium forms a symbiotic relationship with the leguminous plants● The term symbiosis means "living together'' (G. syn = together, bios = life).● Symbiosis includes all interactions in which two species actually live together without regard to benefit or harm to the participants● Plants cannot take the atmospheric nitrogen directly, they require it in the soluble forms● The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a soluble form.● But Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So it lives in the roots of a gram, peas, moong, beans, and other legumes and provides them with nitrogen.● Most of the pulses (dals) are obtained from leguminous plants.● In return, the plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria. They, thus, have a symbiotic relationship.

✅Explanation: Drip irrigation is a highly efficient method of irrigation that delivers water directly to the roots of plants, minimizing water wastage through evaporation or runoff. Compared to conventional irrigation methods (such as flood or surface irrigation), drip irrigation can save approximately 50-70% of irrigation water by ensuring targeted application to the plant roots and reducing water loss.🛑Additional Information: Drip irrigation It is also called trickle irrigation is used in areas with water scarcity and salt problems. It involves the slow application of water, drop by drop to the root zone of a crop, water seeps from these holes drop by drop, hence the name drip irrigation. Water-saving 50-70% as compared to surface irrigation. The difference in water delivery rate between extreme emitters should not exceed 10% Water discharge rate is generally 1-4 lit/hr. at 1.5-2.5 kg/cm2 pressure. The water use efficiency of drip irrigation is 95% Most suitable for widely spaced crops, orchards trees, and greenhouses.Advantage of drip irrigation: ​​Increased water use efficiency High crop yield Uniform and better quality of the produce Efficient and economic use or fertilizer through fertigation Less weed growth Minimum damage to the soil structure and reduction in soil erosion Usage in undulating areas and slowly permeable soil Low energy requirement i.e. labor-saving

✅Explanation: There are three main cultivated species of sugarcane:Saccharum officinarum (the primary species used for sugar production),Saccharum sinense, andSaccharum barberi (used in some parts of India).🛑Additional Information: Byproducts in the Sugarcane IndustryMain Byproducts:Cane topsBagasseFilter mud / press mudMolasses1. Cane TopsCane tops have no significant market value.Comparable to fair quality fodder with an average feed value of 2.8 MJ of metabolizable energy per kilo of dry matter.Should be collected and transported to feedlots, but their market is limited.2. BagasseDefinition: Fibrous residue from cane stalks after juice extraction.Composed of fibers, water, and small quantities of soluble solids (mainly sugar).Utilizations:Electricity generationParticle boardPaper productionFurfural production (colorless, inflammable, volatile liquid used for various industrial purposes):Selective solvent for lubricating oils refining.Intermediate in producing nylon and resins.25 tonnes of bagasse produce 1 tonne of furfural.Methane production.3. Filter Mud / Press MudDefinition: The precipitated impurities in cane juice after filtration, forming a cake with varying moisture content.Contains colloidal organic matter and anions that precipitate during clarification.Limitations of Use:As animal feed: Economically not rewarding due to drying process and low digestibility.As soil nutrient: Has limitations due to high levels of C.O.D. and B.O.D., wax percentage, and various harmful chemicals that hinder microbial action.Challenges in biodegradation: High chemical concentration prevents effective microbial activity except for thermophiles.4. Molasses Definition: The residual syrup remaining after repeated crystallization during sugar production. Molasses yield is about 3.0% per tonne of cane, though it can range from 2.2% to 3.7%. Specific gravity ranges from 1.39 to 1.49, with an average of 1.43. Molasses has various industrial uses and is a valuable byproduct despite being the least desirable fraction of the cane juice.

✅Explanation: Absolute humidity refers to the amount of moisture (water vapor) in a unit volume of air, typically expressed in grams per cubic meter (g/m³). It quantifies the total water vapor present in the air, irrespective of the air's temperature.Other options (a) Relative humidity: Relative humidity measures the percentage of moisture in the air relative to the maximum amount the air can hold at a specific temperature.  (b) Specific humidity: Specific humidity refers to the mass of water vapor per unit mass of air (usually expressed in grams of water vapor per kilogram of air). It is different from absolute humidity, which focuses on volume. 🛑Additional Information: Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. If there is a lot of water vapor in the air, the humidity will be high. The higher the humidity, the wetter it feels outside. When the humidity is high it feels oppressive outside because sweat doesn't evaporate and provide cooling. When the humidity is low, you feel cooler but your skin dries out and you get dehydrated more easily because more moisture is being evaporated from your body.  For example, a completely saturated parcel of air at constant pressure cannot hold any more water molecules, giving it a relative humidity of 100 percent. As air temperature increases, air can hold more water molecules, and its relative humidity decreases. When temperatures drop, relative humidity increases. Temperature therefore directly relates to the amount of moisture the atmosphere can hold. Hence, we can conclude from the above points that humidity decreases air temperature.There are three main measurements of humidity: relative, absolute, and specific. Absolute humidity: Its unit is grams of water vapor per cubic meter volume of air. It is a measure of the actual amount of water vapor in the air, regardless of the air's temperature. The higher the amount of water vapor, the higher the absolute humidity. For example, a maximum of about 30 grams of water vapor can exist in a cubic meter volume of air with a temperature in the middle 80s. Relative humidity: It is expressed as a percent, is a measure of the amount of water vapor that air is holding compared the amount it can hold at a specific temperature. Warm air can possess more water vapor (moisture) than cold air, so with the same amount of absolute/specific humidity, air will have higher relative humidity. Relative humidity of 50% means the air holds on that day (specific temperature) holds 50% of the water needed for the air to be saturated. Saturated air has a relative humidity of 100%.  The relative humidity of an air-water mixture is also defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in the mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Thus the relative humidity of air is a function of both water content and temperature.Specific humidity: Specific humidity refers to the weight of water vapor contained in a unit weight (amount) of air (expressed as grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air). Absolute and specific humidity are quite similar in concept.

✅Explanation: Agronomy is the science of soil management and crop production. It involves the study of a range of practices and principles related to the cultivation of crops and the management of soil to optimize agricultural productivity.Other options● Soil management: A crucial part of agronomy.● Farm management: Encompasses broader aspects of running a farm, including economics and labor, and is related but not synonymous with agronomy.● Crop protection An important part of agronomy, focused on disease and pest control.🔑Key Points  Agronomy is the branch that deals with principles and practices of Soil, Water, and Crop Management.​ ​It encompasses work in plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. Agronomy is applying a combination of sciences like biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics. Agronomists today are involved with many issues including producing food, creating healthier food, managing the environmental impact of agriculture, and extracting energy from plants. Agronomists often specialize in crop rotation, irrigation and drainage, plant breeding, plant physiology, soil classification, soil fertility, weed control, and insect and pest control.

Explanation Thiourea is a chemical that is commonly used to break dormancy in potato seeds (or tubers). It stimulates the sprouting of dormant potato tubers, promoting early growth.Other options (a) N.A.A. (Naphthalene acetic acid): NAA is a synthetic auxin (plant hormone) used for promoting root development. (b) Ethereal (an ethylene-releasing compound): While ethylene can promote the sprouting of some seeds. (d) I.A.A (Indole-3-acetic acid): IAA is a naturally occurring auxin involved in growth processes.🛑Additional Information: Thiourea is an element that is pyroelectric, piezoelectric, and ferroelectric material. Pyroelectric material generates electric potential whenever heated or cooled. Piezoelectric materials generate electricity whenever mechanical stress is applied. Ferroelectric material exhibits electric polarization even in the absence of an electric field.

✅Explanation: The boot stage is a period of rapid growth and development for barley. It's when the plant's reproductive organs (head or spike) are enclosed within the uppermost leaf sheath, resembling a boot.🛑Additional Information: Critical Stages for Irrigation Rice:Initial tilleringFlowering Wheat:Most critical stages:Crown root initiationTilleringJointingBootingFloweringMilk and dough stages Pulses:Flowering and podding Peas:Pre-bloom stage Berseem:After each cutting Gram:Pre-flowering and flowering Pigeonpea:Flower initiationPod filling Sorghum:Initial seedlingPre-floweringFloweringGrain formation Barley:Boot stageDough stage Maize:Early vegetativeTasseling and silking stage

✅Explanation: Triticum aestivum is the most commonly grown wheat species in India. It is the bread wheat variety, which is grown in a large area, particularly in the northern and central parts of India, where it is used for making flour (atta) and for bread production.📌Other Options Explanations:● Triticum dicocum: Emmer wheat, an older, tetraploid wheat species.● Triticum durum: Durum wheat, the hardest wheat species, mainly used for pasta.● Triticum persicum: Persian wheat, an uncommon, tetraploid wheat species.🔑Key Points  A farmed wheat species, common wheat (Triticum aestivum), is also known as bread wheat. Common wheat accounts for approximately 95% of all wheat produced worldwide; it is the most extensively farmed of all cereals and the cereal with the largest monetary yield. Wheat is an allohexaploid plant (an allopolyploid with six sets of chromosomes: two sets from each of three different species). Two sets of chromosomes come from Triticum Urartu (einkorn wheat) and two from an Aegilops speltoides-related species.

✅Explanation: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) belongs to the Leguminosae family, also known as the Legume family. This family includes a variety of plants that produce legumes (pods containing seeds), and chickpea is one of the most important legumes grown worldwide for its protein-rich seeds.📌Other Options Explanations: (b) Gramineae: This is the family of grasses, which includes crops like wheat, rice, and maize. (c) Linaceae: This is the family of flax, which is grown for fiber and oil. (d) Tiliaceae: This family includes plants like linden trees, not legumes like chickpea.🛑Additional Information: Leguminosae This family was earlier called Papilionoideae.  Systematic position:o Division - Embryophytao Subdivision - Angiospermaeo Class - Dictoledonaeo Sub class - Polypetalaeo Series - Calycifloraeo Order - Rosaleso Family - Leguminosae The family includes 600 genera and 13000 species. It is distributed all over the world except the Arctic regions. The Leguminosae family is economically significant because it includes pulses and some medicinal plants that are used as food and medicine. The Leguminosae family is an important source of pulses and vegetables. The pulses are rich in proteins like gram (chana), pea (matar), field bean (bankla), cluster bean (gwar), lima bean (lobia), lentil (masoor), bean (sem), soya (soybean), etc. Other important characters of this family are:o ​Root: Tap root with lateral branches.o Stem: Herbaceous or woody, branched, erect or climbing.o Leaf: Alternate, pinnately compound or simple, leaf base, pulvinate, stipulate, venation-reticulate.o Inflorescence: Simple raceme, axillary cyme or solitary axillary.o Seed: Legume (Pod)

✅Explanation: Early-duration potato varieties typically take 70-90 days to be ready for harvest. These varieties are specially bred to mature quickly, allowing farmers to harvest them sooner than other potato varieties, which is advantageous in regions with shorter growing seasons.🛑Additional Information: Early Duration Potato Variety Variety Name: Kufri Pukhraj Origin: Cross of Craig's Defiance x JEX/B-687, released in 1998 from CPRI, Shimla Plant Characteristics:Tall, semi-erect, medium compact, and vigorous plantsFew, medium-thick, green stems with moderately developed straight wingsFoliage is dark grey-greenLeaves are closed with large-sized foliage, rachis greenLeaflets are ovate to lanceolate with smooth glossy surface and entire margin Flower Characteristics:White flowers, moderate in floweringOrange-yellow anthers, well-developedHigh pollen stability and round stigma Tuber Characteristics:White, large, oval, slightly tapered tubersSmooth skin, few eyesYellow flesh with blue-purple sprouts Maturity: Early maturing variety (70-90 days) Yield Potential: 400 q/ha Resistance:Resistant to early blightModerately resistant to la  Variety Name: Kufri Pukhraj Origin: Cross of Craig's Defiance x JEX/B-687, released in 1998 from CPRI, Shimla Plant Characteristics:Tall, semi-erect, medium compact, and vigorous plantsFew, medium-thick, green stems with moderately developed straight wingsFoliage is dark grey-greenLeaves are closed with large-sized foliage, rachis greenLeaflets are ovate to lanceolate with smooth glossy surface and entire margin Flower Characteristics:White flowers, moderate in floweringOrange-yellow anthers, well-developedHigh pollen stability and round stigma Tuber Characteristics:White, large, oval, slightly tapered tubersSmooth skin, few eyesYellow flesh with blue-purple sprouts Maturity: Early maturing variety (70-90 days) Yield Potential: 400 q/ha Resistance:Resistant to early blightModerately resistant to late blight Suitable Regions:BiharGujaratHaryanaHimachal PradeshKarnatakaMadhya PradeshMaharashtraOrissaPunjabUttar PradeshWest Bengal Not Suitable For: Processingte blight Suitable Regions: Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Not Suitable For: Processing

✅Explanation: Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is believed to have originated in the Fertile Crescent, an area in the Middle East that includes parts of modern-day Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. This region is often considered the cradle of agriculture, where barley was first domesticated around 10,000 years ago.

De-suckering is a common process in tobacco production, where side shoots (suckers) that emerge between the leaf and stem of tobacco plants are removed. This helps to direct the plant's energy into producing larger, healthier leaves, which are more suitable for harvesting.Other options  (b) Retting: Retting is primarily used in the processing of flax, hemp, and other fibers. (c) Winning: Winning refers to the process of separating the leaves from the plant. (d) Thinning: Thinning is a process in many crops where excess plants are removed to allow better spacing.🛑Additional Information:  Desuckering or Suckering:After topping, auxiliary buds grow and produce shoots known as suckers.The process of removing these suckers is called desuckering or suckering. Objective:To divert the energy and nutrients from flowers to the leaves.This helps in increasing the size of the leaves and the final leaf yield.It also improves the quality of the leaves. Exceptions:Most tobaccos grown are topped and suckered.Wrapper tobacco is an exception where texture is more important, and it may not undergo topping and desuckering.

✅Explanation: Safflower oil is primarily composed of linoleic acid, which is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. It makes up the majority of the oil's fatty acid profile, contributing to its health benefits, such as lowering cholesterol levels. Other options(b) Linolenic acid: Linolenic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid, which is more prominent in oils like flaxseed oil.(c) Stearic acid: Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid. (d) Palmitic acid: Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty.🛑Additional Information:  Essential fatty acids: fatty acids that cannot be prepared by the body and are obtained from the diet. Out body is not capable to synthesize them. For example, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid. The two essential fatty acids that are required are Linoleic and α-linolenic acidsLinoleic acid:o A polyunsaturated fatty acid is present as a triglyceride in linseed oil and other oils and is essential in the human diet.o Double bonds are not conjugated.o Occurs in misconfiguration.o One of the two essential fatty acids required by the body.o Occurs in nuts and fatty seeds.α-Linolenic acids: α-linolenic acid (C18H30O2)could be a form of omega-3 fatty acid found in plants. It's found in flaxseed oil, and in canola, soy, perilla, and walnut oils. α-linolenic acid is comparable to the omega-3 fatty acids that are in fish oil, known as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

✅Explanation: Cumin is the spice crop that covers the most land for growing in Rajasthan, India. Rajasthan is known for its favorable climate and soil conditions for cumin cultivation. The state is one of the largest producers of cumin in India. Rajasthan is known as the "Cumin Bowl of India" due to its extensive cultivation of cumin.

 ✅Explanation: Aruna is a variety of mustard (Brassica juncea). It is known for its high yield and resistance to certain diseases, making it a popular choice for cultivation in regions like India. It was officially approved in 1969.🛑Additional Information: Aruna is a mutant variety of castor bean that matures early, taking 120 days instead of the usual 270 days. It was developed by treating the seeds with thermal neutrons. Aruna is a promising variety that is high yielding and resistant to wilt. It has helped increase productivity levels in rainfed regions of India.

✅Explanation: Moth bean is scientifically known as Vigna aconitifolia. It is a drought-resistant legume grown in arid and semi-arid regions, especially in India.Other options● Vigna radiata: Mung bean● Vigna mungo: Urad bean (black gram)● Vigna unguiculata Cowpea🛑Additional Information:  Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia) is an orphan legume of the Vigna genus. It exhibits wide adaptability and can grow well in arid and semi-arid areas. Moth bean is primarily grown across different eco-geographical regions of Asia, especially in the Indian subcontinent. The crop has inherent adaptive attributes, making it tolerant to various abiotic and biotic stresses that affect the yield of other Vigna species. Moth bean is recognized for its superior nutritional quality, with high protein content as well as a beneficial amino acid, mineral, and vitamin profile. It is used as both food and fodder.

✅Explanation: Pegging is a unique phenomenon in groundnut (also called peanut) cultivation. After successful fertilization, the stalk holding the developing flower ovary (gynoecium) bends and elongates, pushing the ovary underground. This buried ovary matures into the peanut pod containing the kernels.🛑Additional Information:  Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)o Family: Fabaceaeo Description: Groundnuts, also known as peanuts, are herbaceous plants that grow annually. The plant produces yellow flowers that, after fertilization, turn downward and burrow into the soil to form pods containing seeds (peanuts).o Significance: Groundnuts are rich in protein and oil, making them a crucial crop for human consumption and oil production. They also play a role in improving soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. Key Characteristics of the Fabaceae Family:o Flowers: Typically have five petals arranged in a unique "butterfly" shape (papilionaceous) with one large petal (standard), two lateral petals (wings), and two lower petals fused together (keel).o Leaves: Usually compound, often with stipules, and can be pinnate or trifoliate.o Fruit: A legume or pod that splits open on two sides to release seeds.o Nitrogen Fixation: Many members of this family form symbiotic relationships with Rhizobium bacteria, which fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by the plant, improving soil fertility.

✅Explanation: Castor plants are members of the Euphorbiaceae family, which includes other plants like poinsettias, cassava, and crotons. This family is known for its milky latex sap and unique flower structures.📌Other Options Explanations:● (a) Poaceae: This family includes grasses like wheat, rice, and corn. Castor is not a grass.● (b) Compositae: This family includes sunflowers, daisies, and dandelions. Castor plants lack the characteristic flower structure of Compositae.● (d) Linaceae: This family includes flax plants. Castor belongs to a different family with distinct characteristics.🔑Key Points  The family Euphorbiaceae includes the enormous and diverse genus of flowering plants known as Euphorbia. These are sometimes known as spurge. All euphorbia has distinctive flower structures and a deadly secretion that resembles latex. Together with Rumex and Senecio, it also possesses one of the broadest variations of chromosomal numbers. These flowers lack petals, sepals, and other components that are common to flowers in other plant species. In regions with less than 70cm of rainfall, thorn forests and scrubs are common. The typical temperature ranges from 25 to 30 degrees Celsius. Euphorbia thrives best in the climatic conditions of thorn forests and scrubs.

✅Explanation: MGR-1 is a hybrid variety of sorghum, developed for higher yield and resistance to certain diseases. Sorghum is an important crop in many parts of the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, and hybrid varieties like MGR-1 are cultivated for their improved agronomic traits..🛑Additional Information:  Variety: MGR 1 Year of release: 1994 Days to maturity: 110-115 days Average yield: 6.08 tonnes/ha Developed by: TNAU, Coimbatore Region: Tamil Nadu

✅Explanation: Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) belongs to the Leguminosae (Fabaceae) family. It is a leguminous plant, commonly used as a green manure crop, for improving soil fertility, and as a fiber crop in certain regions.📌Other Options Explanations: Poaceae: This family includes grasses like wheat, rice, and corn.  Euphorbiaceae: This family includes castor plants and poinsettias.  Malvaceae: This family includes cotton plants and okra. 🔑Key Points Related to the Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Family: Common Features: Plants in the Leguminosae family often have compound leaves, pods (legumes), and are known for their ability to fix nitrogen through symbiotic relationships with bacteria in their root nodules. Uses: Many Leguminosae plants are important in agriculture for their edible seeds (such as beans and peas), their use in nitrogen fixation which improves soil fertility, and their medicinal properties. Medicinal Uses: Senna, specifically, is well-known for its use as a natural laxative. Senna leaves and pods contain compounds called sennosides, which are used to treat constipation.

✅Explanation: The American classification system for soybeans primarily classifies them based on their maturity period, which refers to how long it takes the soybean variety to reach physiological maturity. This classification is essential for determining the appropriate planting times and growing regions.🔑Key Points  Soybean (Glycine max) belongs to the family Leguminoceae. It contains 20% oil and 40% proteins. Owing to its multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products , it is called as wonder crop. Also known as boneless meat.

✅Explanation: Prussic acid (also known as hydrocyanic acid or cyanide) is typically higher in the leaf part of the sorghum plant, particularly when the plant is stressed, such as during drought or after frost damage. This toxic compound is produced in the leaves due to the breakdown of cyanogenic glycosides, and it can pose a danger to livestock when consumed.🛑Additional Information:  The chemical name of Prussic acid is Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) and its acid name is Hydrocyanic acid Potassium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula of K2CO3  Potassium nitrate is the chemical compound with the formula of KNO3 Magnesium silicate has the formula of MgO3Si

✅Explanation: The Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR) is located in Hyderabad, Telangana. It is a premier research institution under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) that focuses on improving oilseed crops like groundnut, sunflower, and soybean.

✅Explanation: Gossypium arboreum, commonly known as tree cotton, is a species of cotton native to the Indian subcontinent and other tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World. It has been cultivated in India for thousands of years, with evidence dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization. 2📌Other Options Explanations:● (a) Gossypium hirsutum: This is known as American Upland cotton, the most widely cultivated cotton species globally.● (b) Gossypium barbadense: This is referred to as Egyptian cotton or Pima cotton, prized for its extra-long and fine fibers.● (c) Gossypium herbaceum: This is known as Levant cotton or Asiatic cotton, another diploid species with shorter and coarser fibers.🛑Additional Information:  Botanical name - Gossypium Family - Malvaceae Origin - Cotton is the world's oldest fiber. India has remained the chief center for years. Botanical characters - The cotton plant is an annual or perennial shrub attaining a height of 1-2 m. The fruit is a loculicidal capsule with a 3-5 locule. It is commonly known as a cotton ball. It requires a temperature of 21oC - 44oC and an annual rainfall of 75-250 cm. It grows best on black and red soils. Important Varieties - All the cultivated cotton belong to the four species: Gossypium arboreum, G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum, and G. barbadense Important Points Gossypium herbaceum: 2n- 26, diploid. It is an old-world crop Gossypium arboreum: 2n- 26, diploid. It is an old-world crop Gossypium barbadense: 2n- 52, tetraploid. It is a new-world crop Gossypium hirsutum: 2n- 52, tetraploid. It is a new-world crop

✅Explanation: Vikas is a variety of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). It is known for its higher yield potential and resistance to drought, making it suitable for cultivation in arid and semi-arid regions.

✅Explanation: Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is less likely to have well-established hybrid varieties compared to maize, bajra (pearl millet), or sorghum. While hybrid varieties exist for barley, the development and adoption of hybrids in barley have not been as widespread as in maize, bajra, or sorghum. This is primarily due to barley's self-pollinating nature, which makes hybrid development more challenging compared to cross-pollinated crops like maize and sorghum.📌Other Options Explanations:● (b) Maize: Maize (corn) has a wide range of well-established hybrid varieties offering benefits like increased yield, disease resistance, or improved quality.● (c) Bajra (Pearl Millet): Hybrid varieties of bajra have been developed and are gaining popularity for their improved characteristics.● (d) Sorghum: Hybrid sorghum varieties are available and play a significant role in sorghum production, especially for enhancing yield and drought tolerance.

✅Explanation: Bikanieri Narma is a variety of cotton, specifically a long-staple cotton variety. It is known for its high-quality fiber and is primarily grown in the Bikaner region of Rajasthan, India.🔑Key Points  Cotton is originally an Indian plant. It developed in the Indus Valley Civilization. 20° to 30° centigrade temperature for cotton, 50 to 100 cm. Clay soil or black soil with annual rainfall and moisture is suitable. Cotton is sown in the month of May-June. In Rajasthan, cotton is produced in Ganganagar (mostly), Hanumangarh, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jhalawar, Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Pali, Kota, Bundi, and Jhalawar districts.Different types of cotton in the state:- Narma:Sown in Sri Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts. American Cotton:Long fiber cotton is the highest in Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts. Malvi Cotton:Sown in Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar, and Tonk districts. Maruvikas (Raj.H.H.-16):First hybrid variety of cotton in Rajasthan. Indigenous Cotton:Sown the most in Udaipur, Chittorgarh, and Banswara districts. BT Cotton:Seed transplantation of Bacillus thuringiensis (producer of special crystal protein).

✅Explanation: The National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), formerly known as the Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), is located in Cuttack, Odisha, India. It's a premier research institute dedicated to improving rice production and developing new rice varieties.🔑Key Points  The Central Rice Research Institute is located in Cuttack, Odisha. The institute not only played a key role in ushering the country of an ear of green revolution heading to self-sufficiency in food grain supply in about 25 years from its inception but also brought glory to the nation by providing research support in rice to become the second-largest exporter of rice in the world in the recent years. The CRRI is one of the Institutes of the ICAR under the Division of Crop Sciences. The Institute has two research stations-1. Central Rainfed Upland Rice Research Station (CRURRS), Hazaribagh, in Jharkhand,2. Regional Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Station (RRLRRS), Gerua, in Assam. These research stations were established to tackle the problems of rainfed uplands, and flood-prone rainfed lowlands, respectively.🛑Additional Information: The outbreak of devastating epiphytotic brown spot disease of rice (Helminthosporium spp)in the then Bengal province in 1942 resulted in a serious shortage of rice.  Added to this, the failure of the civil administration to cope with such a disastrous situation culminated in what was called the Great Bengal Famine of 1943.  With this background, the Central Government, in the year 1944, decided to intensify research on all aspects of the rice crops. In the following year, the Government decided to establish a Central Institute for Rice Research and this culminated in the establishment of the Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) on April 23, 1946, at Bidyadharpur, Cuttack, Odisha with experimental farmland of 60 hectares provided by the Government of Odisha.

✅Explanation: PEHM-2 (Pusa Early Hybrid Makka 2) is a well-known hybrid variety of maize (corn) developed in India. It's known for its early maturity, moderate tolerance to moisture stress, and suitability for use as baby corn.🛑Additional Information:  Hybrid Name: Pusa Early Hybrid Makka -1 Pedigree/Parentage: CM 135 x CM 136 Developing Centre: IARI, Delhi Contribution of Persons: B.K. Mukherjee and V.P. Ahuja Year: 1997Notification:Number: 662(E)Date: 17/09/1997 Description of Hybrid: A single cross hybrid with orange grain type.Description of the Parents: IPA-3 (female parent): Derived from base population A-64, which includes germplasm from Mexico, USA, Argentina, Caribbean region, and India. IPA-34 (male parent): Derived from base population MDR-1, including germplasm from the Philippines, USA, Thailand, Guatemala, and Caribbean region.Identifiable Distinguishing Morphological Characters:Extremely vigorous, sturdy stemLarge tasselDark green broad leafAnther color: yellowSilk emerging green, turning purpleHus cover: tight, extending over tipHeart color: white No. of Days to Maturity: EarlyReaction to Major Pests and Diseases:Moderate resistance to MLB, Rhizoctonia solaniResistance to SB and lodgingTolerance to waterlogging Quality of Produce: Yellow-orange, flint Reaction to Stress (Special Character): Resistant to temporary waterlogging situations Area of Adoption: Peninsular India, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra under irrigated and rainfed ecology Production Conditions: Kharif Average Grain Yield: 45 q/ha Remarks: Registered w.e.f. February 12, 2009

✅Explanation: Cluster bean, commonly known as Guar, is an important legume crop widely grown in semi-arid regions. Its scientific name is Cyamopsis tetragonoloba.📌Other Options Explanations:● (c) Crotalaria juncea: This is the botanical name for sunn hemp, which is used as a green manure crop.● (d) Glycine max: This is the scientific name for soybean.

✅Explanation: Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) is widely used as a green manuring crop due to its ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, improve soil fertility, and suppress weeds. It is grown primarily to enrich the soil rather than for direct consumption.🛑Additional Information:  Sunn-hemp is most suitable for loamy soils. It is sown in May or June when the monsoon breaks. It grows very fast and to a height of 1 to 2 metres. It can grow even on poor soils and ads about 20 to 25 tons of fresh green plant material per hectare to the soil. It is the most outstanding green manure crop and is well suited in almost all parts of India. It fits in well with the sugarcane, potato, garden crops and the second season paddy in southern India and with irrigated wheat in the north India. Dhaincha, Sunn-hemp are legume green manure crops. Whereas Gliricidia, cassia are legume green leaf manure crops.

✅Explanation: Ergot is a fungal disease caused by Claviceps fusiformis in pearl millet. It produces a sticky, honey-like secretion on the ears of infected plants. This secretion contains fungal spores and dries up over time, leaving behind dark sclerotia (ergots) that replace the grains.

✅Explanation: Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) is a minor oilseed crop cultivated for its seeds, which yield edible oil. The oil is used for cooking, and the crop is also grown as bird feed or for soil improvement.🔑Key Points  Niger is a minor oilseed crop that is grown predominantly under rainfed conditions.  It is used as human food. The oil content in the seed is 37- 47%. Hence option 4 is correct. The color of the oil is pale yellow with a nutty taste and a pleasant odor. The oil is used for culinary purposes, anointing the body, manufacturing paints and soft soaps, and for lighting and lubrication.  It is used as a base oil by the perfume industry. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and West Bengal are the states where Niger is grown.

✅Explanation: Tikka disease, also known as leaf spot disease, is caused by two types of fungi:Cercospora arachidicola (early leaf spot)Phaeoisariopsis personata (late leaf spot).It primarily affects groundnut, leading to defoliation and reduced yields. Symptoms include dark brown spots on leaves with yellow halos.🛑Additional Information:  Tikka disease of groundnut also known as Leaf spot disease. The causal organism of tikka disease is the organism of the Cercospora genus namely Cercospora personata and Cercospora arachidicola. According to a survey, tikka disease can cause epidemics in all groundnut growing countries, including the United States, China, India, etc.

✅Explanation: Sunhemp, grown for green manuring, benefits from a seed rate of 30-40 kg/ha. This ensures a good density of plants for effective soil improvement through nitrogen fixation and organic matter addition.

✅Explanation: The ICAR institution located in Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram) is CTCRI (Central Tuber Crops Research Institute). The Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), established in 1963, is located in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. It specializes in the research and development of tropical tuber crops like cassava, sweet potato, yams, and aroids.📌Other Options Explanations: a) CPRI (Central Potato Research Institute): CPRI is located in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, and focuses on potato research. b) CPRRI (Central Plantation Crops Research Institute): CPCRI is located in Kasaragod, Kerala, and focuses on crops like coconut and arecanut.

✅Explanation: Rajasthan is one of the leading producers of Bajra (Pearl Millet) in India, and it is extensively cultivated during the Kharif season. Bajra is well-suited to the state's arid and semi-arid conditions due to its drought tolerance and ability to thrive in low-fertility soils.Important 🔑Key Points  Kharif crops also are known as monsoon crops as they are cultivated in the monsoon season. Their cropping season starts in June and ends in October. These crops are sown at the beginning of the rainy season. Rice, maize, bajra, ragi, sorghum, soybean, groundnut, cotton, etc. are all Kharif types of crops. Cereal is also called grain, any grass (family Poaceae) yielding starchy seeds suitable for food. India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jawar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc.🛑Additional Information: Zaid Season: It is a short season between Kharif and Rabi season. The crops grown during this season are known as Zaid crops. Pumpkin, cucumber, watermelon, bitter gourd, etc. are all zaid types of crops. Rabi Season: These are the crops that are sown at the end of the monsoon season or at the beginning of the winter season. These crops also are known as winter crops. Wheat, Mustard, Peas, Pulses, Barley, etc. are all Rabi types of crops.

✅Explanation: The milling percentage of rice refers to the amount of polished rice obtained from the paddy after removing the husk and bran layers. On average, 65% of the paddy weight is converted into polished rice, while the remaining 35% consists of husk, bran, and other by-products.

✅Explanation: Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is one of the most drought-resistant millets. It can survive and grow in extremely dry conditions with minimal water, making it a crucial crop in arid regions.📌Other Options Explanations: (b) Finger millet: High in calcium and iron, widely used for food and fodder, highly drought-resistant. (c) Foxtail millet: Quick-growing, drought-tolerant, used in food and as fodder. (d) Barnyard millet: Fast-growing, drought-resistant, commonly used as food in South Asia, also for fodder. 🛑Additional Information:  Millets are small-seeded grasses that are cultivated as grain crops in dry, arid regions. Common millet crops include:o Sorghum (also called Jowar)o Kodo (Kodo millet)o Kangani (Foxtail millet)o Ragi (Finger millet)

✅Explanation: The botanical name of cowpea is Vigna unguiculata. Cowpea is a leguminous crop grown for its edible seeds, which are commonly used in various dishes. It is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions and is known for its ability to fix nitrogen in the soil.📌Other Options Explanations: c) Vigna radiate: This is the botanical name of mung bean (green gram). d) Lens esculenta: This is the botanical name of lentil.🛑Additional Information:  Scientific Name: Vigna unguiculata Family: Fabaceae Type: Annual herbaceous legume Common Cropping System: Often intercropped with other plants like peanuts, corn, and sorghum Protein Content: Ranges between 18-25%, comparable to some meat types Resilience: Known for its high drought tolerance and ability to withstand harsh conditions

✅Explanation: Green gram (Vigna radiata) is a leguminous crop that is commonly used for green manuring due to its ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, improving soil fertility. Green manuring involves growing crops that are plowed under to enrich the soil with organic matter and nutrients.Important 🔑Key Points Green Gram- Green gram is popularly known as “Moong Dal “ in India and is basically a tiny circular shaped bean that is green in colour. Green gram is one of the main pulse crops in India. It is widely cultivated throughout Asia, including India. Green gram provides protein requirements for the vegetarian population of the country. It is a protein-rich diet. In India, it is consumed in the form of the whole pulse as well as a split pulse. Green Gram can be cultivated in a wide range of soils, from black cotton soils in North India red laterite soils in South India and sandy soils in Rajasthan.

✅Explanation: The shelling percentage refers to the proportion of the total weight of groundnuts (in-shell) that consists of the edible kernel after the shell is removed. On average, groundnuts have a shelling percentage of around 50%, meaning that half of the total weight is typically the kernel.🔑Key Points  Peanuts:o The peanut is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds.o It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics, being important to both small and large commercial producers.o It is classified as both a grain legume and its high oil content, an oil crop.o Peanuts are the main crop of Ghanao World annual production of shelled peanuts was 44 million tonnes in 2016, led by China with 38% of the world total.o Atypically among legume crop plants, peanut pods develop underground (geocarpy) rather than above ground.o With this characteristic in mind, the botanist Carl Linnaeus gave peanuts the specific epithet hypogaea, which means "under the earth".

✅Explanation: Cotton fiber is primarily composed of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate that forms the structural component of plant cell walls. Cellulose is the main substance that gives cotton its strength and texture, making it ideal for textile production.📌Other Options Explanations:● (b) Lignin: Lignin is a complex organic polymer present in plant cell walls. 🛑Additional Information: Cellulose:o Cellulose is a polysaccharide (made up from sugar units) polymer.o The monosaccharide unit of the cellulose is Glucose.o The cell wall in the plant cells is made up of cellulose.

✅Explanation: Bajra (Pearl Millet) is a drought-resistant cereal crop commonly grown in arid and semi-arid regions. Its botanical name is Pennisetum glaucum. It's a cereal grain crop known for its drought tolerance and nutritional value.📌Other Options Explanations:● (a) Sorghum bicolor: This is the botanical name for another cereal grain, sorghum.● (c) Zea Mays: This is the scientific name for maize (corn).● (d) Triticum aestivum: This is the botanical name for wheat.🛑Additional Information:  Common Name: Bajra (Pearl Millet) Botanical Family: Pennisetum Genus: Poaceae Cultivation History: Grown in India and Africa since ancient times Resilience: Known for its ability to grow in arid regions with poor soil fertility Soil Tolerance: Thrives in soils with low pH or high salinity levels Suitability: Suitable for areas where other grains, such as wheat, may not survive due to tough growing conditions

✅Explanation: Pigeonpea (red gram) is a leguminous crop grown primarily for its seeds. In ideal conditions, the yield can range between 15 to 20 kg per hectare for a sole crop, though this can vary based on soil quality, climate, and farming practices.

✅Explanation: Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia) is known for its exceptional drought tolerance and ability to grow in sandy soils. It is an early-maturing crop that can thrive in arid regions with minimal water, making it ideal for Kharif season cultivation.Important 🔑Key Points  Botanical Name: Vigna aconitifolia Common Name: Moth bean Family: Fabaceae (Legume family) Adaptability: Exhibits wide adaptability and grows well in arid and semi-arid areas Geographical Distribution: Predominantly grown across different eco-geographical regions of Asia, especially the Indian subcontinent Tolerance: Highly tolerant to various abiotic (such as drought) and biotic stresses that affect other Vigna species Nutritional Quality: Known for its high protein content, along with a favorable profile of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins Uses: Utilized as both food and fodder

✅Explanation: India is the largest producer of pigeonpea (red gram) globally. The crop is primarily grown in states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh, and it plays an essential role in the country's agriculture, both as a food crop and for soil enrichment due to its nitrogen-fixing properties.🔑Key Points Pigeonpea (Arhar) is commonly known as red gram or tur.Botanical Name - Cajanus cajan (L.) MillspIt is mainly eaten in the form of the split pulse as ‘dal’.Seeds of arhar are also rich in iron, iodine, essential amino acids like lycine, threonine, cystine, and arginine, etc.It is predominantly a crop of tropical areas mainly cultivated in semi-arid regions of IndiaIt is very sensitive to low radiation at pod development, therefore flowering during the monsoon and cloudy weather leads to poor pod formation.It is successfully grown in black cotton soils, well-drained with a pH ranging from 7.0-8.5.It responds well to properly tilled and well-drained seedbeds.Three systems of sowings are practiced for pigeon pea. The common is flat sowing, the other methods are broad bed-furrow (BBF) for the extra-early group and ridge-and-furrow for the late maturity group.The seeding rate of pigeon pea depends on the desired plant density for a genotype (early, medium, or late), cropping system (pure crop, mixed crop, or intercrop), the germination rate of seed, and mass of seed.

✅Explanation: Collar Rot is a fungal disease primarily caused by Aspergillus niger and Rhizoctonia solani, which affects the base or collar region of the plant stem. It is particularly problematic in groundnut crops, causing damage to the root system and leading to reduced plant vigor, wilting, and death.Important Points Groundnut oil is obtained from Arachis hypogaea. The common name of Arachis hypogaea is peanut or groundnut. It belongs to the family Fabaceae, the pea family. Most of the species of this family are grown for their edible seeds. It is an annual herbaceous plant. Groundnuts are rich in proteins, fats, vitamin B- complexes, vitamin E, fibres, and dietary minerals, such as manganese, phosphorus, zinc, potassium, magnesium, etc. Like other legumes, groundnuts also have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules. Due to their ability to fix nitrogen, peanuts use less nitrogen-containing fertilizer and enhance soil fertility, making them useful in crop rotations. Groundnut oil or peanut oil is a pure edible oil. Its major component fatty acids are oleic acid (46.8% as olein), linoleic acid (33.4% as linolein), and palmitic acid (10.0% as palmitin). Groundnut oil has a higher smoking point (225°C) than many other cooking oils. It can be also used to make soap through the process of saponification. It contains 17% saturated fat, 46% monounsaturated fat, and 32% polyunsaturated fat. The oil is rich in vitamin E.

✅Explanation: Maize was domesticated in Mexico around 9,000 years ago from wild grasses. Central America, particularly the region now known as Mexico, is considered the center of origin for maize, where early agricultural societies began cultivating it.🔑Key Points Maize: The primary centre of origin of maize is considered by most authorities to be the Central America and Mexico, where many diverse types of maize are found. The discovery of fossil maize pollen with other archaeological evidence in Mexico indicates Mexico to be the native of maize.  Maize is cultivated throughout the world. From 58°N latitude to 40°S latitude, the crop spreads and cultivated over 139 million ha of area and around 600 million tonnes of maize is produced. Crop occupies the third position next to rice and wheat in area and production. USA, China, Brazil, Mexico, India, Romania, Philippines, Indonesia are some of important countries cultivate maize crop. In India, Rajasthan, UP, MP, Bihar, Karnataka, Gujarat, AP, J&K, HP and Maharashtra are important states produce maize.  Regional names:o Bhutta (Bengali),o Makai (Gujarati),o Maka (Hindi, Marathi,o Oriya), Musikinu jola (Kannada),o Makaay (Kashmiri),o Cholam (Malayalam),o Makka Cholam (Tamil),o Mokka jonnalu (Telugu) It is staple human food, feed for livestock, for fermentation and many industrial uses. Deep, fertile, rich in organic matter and well drained soils are the most preferred ones for the crop; however, maize can be grown on a variety of soil types. The soil should be medium textured with good water holding capacity.

✅Explanation: A cropping system refers to the pattern or sequence of crops grown on a piece of land during a specific time period, typically within a single year. In the case of rice-wheat-moong, it involves growing rice during the Kharif season, followed by wheat in the Rabi season, and moong (green gram) during the summer or short-season crop.📌Other Options Explanations:● (a) Farming System: A farming system includes not only crops but also livestock, soil management, and other components of a farm. ● (b) Agroforestry System: Agroforestry involves the integration of trees, crops, and livestock in a sustainable way, ● (d) Agro-ecosystem: An agro-ecosystem refers to the entire ecological system of a farm, including crops, livestock, and environmental interactions.🔑Key Points  The relation of a specific cropping pattern with all available farm resources like water, land, and environment is defined as a Cropping system Cropping System is a broader term comprising the crops and cropping pattern along with their interaction with other agricultural components such as resources, machinery, technologies, environment, etc.Important Points Cropping scheme: The plan according to which crops are grown on individual plots of a farm with the object of getting maximum return from cash crops without impairing the soil fertility is known as the cropping scheme. A cropping pattern: It is defined as the spatial representation of crop rotations, or as the list of crops being produced in an area and their sequence in time. The cropping intensity: It is the fraction of the arable area that is harvested. The cropping intensity may exceed 100% where more than one crop is harvested year

✅Explanation: Sericulture is the practice of breeding silkworms and cultivating mulberry plants to produce silk. Mulberry leaves are the primary food for silkworms, which are raised in sericulture for silk production.📌Other Options Explanations:  a) Apiculture: Apiculture refers to the cultivation of bees for honey production. c) Pisciculture: Pisciculture involves the breeding and cultivation of fish. d) Horticulture: Horticulture refers to the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants.🔑Key Points  Sericulture is related to the rearing of silkworms. Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk. India is the second-largest producer of silk within the globe. Silk is a fiber made up of two different proteins:o Sericin proteino Fibroin protein🛑Additional Information:  Apiculture: Bee farming Floriculture: Flower farming Horticulture: Vegetable farming Pisciculture: Fish farming Vermiculture: Earthworm farming Viticulture: Grapes farming Fungi culture: Mushroom farming

✅Explanation: The International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), now part of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), is located in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It focuses on the research and management of water resources in agriculture, particularly irrigation systems.🛑Additional Information: Organization Type: Non-profit international water management research organizationAffiliation: Under the CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research)Headquarters: Colombo, Sri LankaOffices: Located across Africa and AsiaResearch Focus: Improving management of water and land resources Aiming to enhance food security Reducing poverty Safeguarding the environment

✅Explanation: Okta is the unit used to measure cloud cover, where the sky is divided into 8 parts (oktas), and each part represents the extent of cloud cover. The percentage of the sky covered by clouds can also be expressed, with 0% meaning clear skies and 100% meaning completely overcast.Other Options Explanation a) Decibel: Decibels are used to measure sound intensity. c) Richter Scale: The Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes. d) Beaufort Scale: The Beaufort scale is used to measure wind speed.

✅Explanation: Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) belongs to the Linaceae family, not the Poaceae family. It is primarily grown for its seeds, which are used to produce linseed oil.📌Other Options Explanations: a) Napier grass: Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is a member of the Poaceae (grass) family. b) Sugarcane: Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) is also a member of the Poaceae family. c) Para grass: Para grass (Urochloa mutica) belongs to the Poaceae family.

✅Explanation:  Biennial crops complete their lifecycle in two years. In the first year, they grow and develop leaves and roots, and in the second year, they flower, set seed, and die. Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris) is a biennial crop. It grows for the first year to develop its root, which is harvested for sugar production, and the second year is used for seed production.📌Other Options Explanations: a) Tobacco: Tobacco is an annual crop, completing its lifecycle in one year. c) Maize (corn): Maize is an annual crop, completing its lifecycle in one year. d) Lucerne (alfalfa): Lucerne (alfalfa) is a perennial crop.🛑Additional Information: Based on Ontogeny (Life cycle):Annual crops: ​Crop plants that complete the life cycle within a season or year. They produce seeds and die within the season. Examples: Wheat, rice, maize, mustard.​Biennial crops: ​Plants that have a life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First years/season, these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to a rosette of leaves. The taproot is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the second year/season, they produce flower stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the plants die. Examples: Sugar beet, beetroot.​Perennial crops: ​They live for three or more years. They may be seed-bearing or non-seed bearing. Examples: Napier fodder grass, coconut.

✅Explanation: As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. At around 6 km (approximately 20,000 feet) altitude, the atmospheric pressure is about half of what it is at sea level. This is due to the decreasing density of air with altitude.

✅Explanation: Western disturbances are the primary weather system responsible for most of the winter rainfall in Rajasthan. These are low-pressure systems that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and bring moisture to the northwestern regions of India, including Rajasthan, during the winter months. They are crucial for providing rainfall during the winter season. 📌Other Options Explanations: a) South-west monsoon: The southwest monsoon primarily brings rainfall during the summer season (June to September). b) North-east monsoon: The northeast monsoon mainly affects the southeastern coast of India.🔑Key Points The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of India. Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon, as well as, in October-November, and are part of the easterly flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions of the country. Thus, we can conclude that Western disturbances cause rainfall during winters in the north-western part of India.Important Points Retreating means withdrawal. So, the withdrawal of southwest monsoon winds from the skies of north India during the months of October and November is known as the retreating monsoon. The period of June to September is referred to as the 'Southwest Monsoon' period. The Southwest Monsoon period is the principal rainy season for the Indian subcontinent. This is the summer monsoon period where the southwest monsoon holds away over the country.

✅Explanation: Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) is a leguminous plant commonly used as a green manure crop. It is grown to improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and enriching the soil with organic matter when incorporated into the soil.🔑Key Points  Green manures are the crops which are grown primarily for building and maintaining soil fertility and structure. Green manure crops should be such that it can be grown quickly. It means growing green crops of Leguminous plants i.e nitrogen fixer. ​Leguminous green manure crops:o Sunhemp, Dhaincha, Blackgram, Mung, Cowpea, Khesri, Berseem, Azolla, Rice bean, Soyabean, Lentil, Pea. The best time at which the crop should be incorporated in the soil as green manure is when it reaches the flowering stage. Characteristics of Green Manuring Crops :o Tolerant to adverse climatic conditions such as drought, waterlogging, high and lowo Temperature etc and tolerant to pests and diseases.o Should possess adequate Rhizobium nodulation potential and must be effective nitrogen fixer.o Should be capable of growing very fast and capable of accumulating sufficient fixed Nitrogen in 4-6 weeks.o Easy to incorporate and quickly decomposable. Some of the reasons to grow green manures are:-o Supplying nitrogen and other nutrients for a crop.o Preventing the leaching of soluble nutrients from the soil.o Providing ground cover to prevent damage to soil structure.o Bringing crop nutrients up from lower soil profiles.o Getting rid of weeds and preventing weed seedling growth.o Aids in the reclamation of saline and alkaline soils by the release of organic acids.

✅Explanation: Ultraviolet (UV) radiation has a wavelength range of approximately 280 nm to 400 nm. UV radiation is classified into three categories based on wavelength: UVA (320-400 nm), UVB (280-320 nm), and UVC (100-280 nm).🔑Key Points  Ultraviolet light also called UV light has a wavelength between 10 and 400 nm which is shorter than visible light but it is larger than the X-rays. It is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is present in sunlight. Ultraviolet light contributes to 10% of the total sunlight. Ultraviolet light can travel through a vacuum. Radio waves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays are examples of transverse waves. while sound waves and ultrasound waves are examples of longitudinal waves. In transverse waves, particles get dispersed in the perpendicular direction in which the waves travel while in longitudinal waves particles are displaced in the parallel direction in which the wave travels.

✅Explanation: Intercropping is the practice of growing two or more crops in proximity, often to complement each other. One of the main purposes of intercropping is to improve soil fertility (e.g., through nitrogen fixation by legumes) and reduce soil erosion (e.g., through better ground cover). Additionally, intercropping can help with pest control and yield improvement, but the primary focus is on enhancing soil health and sustainability.

✅Explanation: Sowing along the slope is not an effective soil conservation measure. Sowing along the slope can increase the risk of soil erosion because it allows water to flow downhill more quickly, potentially washing away the topsoil.📌Other Options Explanations: a) Strip cropping: Strip cropping involves planting crops in alternating strips along the contours, which helps reduce erosion by slowing water flow and promoting infiltration. b) Contour farming: Contour farming involves plowing along the contours of the land, which helps reduce soil erosion by following the natural contours of the land and preventing water from flowing directly downhill. c) Mulch filming: Mulch filming, or using a layer of mulch, helps conserve soil moisture, prevent erosion, and improve soil structure.🔑Key Points  There are the following methods of soil conservation:o Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.o Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.o Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.o Terrace farming: These are made on steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.o Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.o Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down the slope.o Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover.

✅Explanation: The primary goal of sustainable agriculture is to maintain an ecological balance. Sustainable agriculture focuses on using farming practices that protect the environment, conserve resources, and support biodiversity, while also ensuring economic viability and social well-being over the long term. 🛑Additional Information:  National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA):o It is one of the major missions of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). Change in agricultural practices also plays a crucial role in the mitigation of climate change effects. This mission tries to comprehensively revamp the agricultural practices so that the desired objectives of the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC’s) can be achieved.o Major Programmes of NMSA Rainfed Area Development (RAD) Develops an area-based approach for the development and conservation of natural resources along with farming systems. It is a combination of various aspects of agriculture such as crops, fishery, livestock, horticulture, forestry and other agro-based activities which will act as a source of generating revenue. Implement practices that will regulate soil nutrient based on soil health card, development of farming lands. Using an approach that is cluster-based, with an area of 100 hectares or more Develop new property resources which would be common, like a bank for grains, fodder, shredders for biomass, combined marketing initiative. On-Farm Water Management (OFWM) The primary focus is optimum utilisation of water by promoting advanced on-farm water conservation equipment and technologies. Emphasize efficient harvesting and management of rainwater. Water conservation on the farm itself by digging farm ponds utilising funds from the MGNREGA mission. Soil Health Management Promote sustainable practices which preserve the health of soil based on a specific location and the type of crops that could be grown in those locations by taking the help of various techniques like management of residue, organic farming By making new maps with details on soil fertility and linking them with macro-management and micromanagement of nutrients, optimum land use, right utilisation of fertilisers and reducing degradation & erosion of soil. Use of thematic maps generated with the help of Geographical Information System (GIS) technology and the databases created on soil and land with the help of scientific surveys. State Government, Soil and land Use Survey of India (SLUSI), National Centre of Organic Farming (NCOF), Central Fertilizer Quality Control and Training Institute (CFQC&TI). Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking (CCSAMMN) Create and disseminate knowledge and updated information on climate change. Support pilot blocks for spreading rainfed technologies and co-ordinate with other schemes or missions like MGNREGS, NFSM, RKVY, IWMP, Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP), NMAET.

✅Explanation: Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is known for its salt tolerance among the crops listed. It can grow in saline soils and can tolerate moderate salinity, which makes it suitable for cultivation in areas with saline conditions.Important PointsThreshold salinity of different field crops: o Rapeseed/Canola: 11.0 dS/mo Gaur: 8.8 dS/mo Barley: 8.0 dS/mo Cotton: 7.7 dS/mo Sugarbeet: 7.0 dS/mo Sorghum: 6.8 dS/mo Wheat: 6.0 dS/mo Soybean: 5.0 dS/mo Groundnut: 3.2 dS/mo Rice: 3.0 dS/mo Maize: 1.7 dS/m

✅Explanation: The Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research (IIFSR), previously known as the Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research (PDFSR), is located in Modipuram, Uttar Pradesh, India.

✅Explanation: Cropping intensity refers to the number of crops grown per year on a specific land area, expressed as a percentage. It is calculated by multiplying the number of crops grown in a year by 100 and dividing by the area under cultivation.🔑Key Points  Cropping intensity refers to the production of multiple crops from the same field in a single agricultural year. It can be expressed mathematically, Cropping Intensity = Gross Cropped Area/Net Sown Area multiplied by 100. Gross sown area is the total area (sown multiple times) cultivated by various crops over the course of a year.

✅Explanation: Dhurrin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in the leaves of young sorghum plants. When the plant is damaged or metabolized, dhurrin breaks down into hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is toxic. This compound serves as a defense mechanism for the plant. 📌Other Options Explanations:○ (b) Gossypol: This is a compound found in cottonseeds.○ (c) Sinigrin: This is a glucoside found in mustard seeds and some other vegetables.

✅Explanation: Maize (corn) is a monoecious plant, meaning it has both male (tassels) and female (ears) reproductive organs on the same plant. The male flowers are in the tassel at the top of the plant, and the female flowers are in the ears, which develop along the sides of the plant. Other Options Explanation b) Dioecious plant: Dioecious plants have male and female reproductive organs on separate plants.🔑Key Points  Plants having both the male and female reproductive parts present are called monoecious plants. All gametes, male and female, are produced by monoecious plants. Androecium, which refers to the male portion, is made up of stamens, and gynoecium, which refers to the female portion, is made up of the pistil. Some examples of monoecious plants are Maize, Cucumber, Chara, Fig, Melon, and Coconut. It's commonly known as a hermaphrodite or bisexual flower when a flower possesses both male and female reproductive organs. It's known as unisexual when a flower just has male or female reproductive organs. Both staminate and pistillate flowers can be found on a single plant in a monoecious species.🛑Additional Information: Dioecious Plant:o Dioecious plants refers to plants that have male and female reproductive parts on different plants.o A dioecious plant is one that has either female or exclusively male reproductive organs in its flowers.o Because they only have one sex organ, dioecious plants are referred to as imperfect flowers.o Examples: papaya, willow, date palm, poplar, etc.

✅Explanation: The Chaufali method is a traditional sowing technique that is typically used for cotton in certain regions. It involves planting seeds in a specific zigzag or criss-cross pattern to optimize land space and encourage better plant growth.

✅Explanation: Pigeonpea (also known as Red gram or Toor dal) is a Kharif pulse crop that is sometimes called "vegetable meat" because of its high protein content. It is a rich source of protein, making it a valuable food source, especially in vegetarian diets.Important Points The pulse 'tur' is also known as Arhar or pigeon pea and is widely cultivated in all tropical and semitropical regions world. The cultivation of the pigeon pea or tur dates back to at least 3,500 years.It is believed to be originated in India and from there it travelled to East Africa and West Africa. Pigeon pea or tur main legume crop of rainfed agriculture in the semiarid tropical regions. The pigeon pea or tur is promoted by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) as a drought-resistant, nutritious alternative crop. The pigeon peas or tur is used both as a food crop (in form of dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a cover crop. The pigeon pea or tur is rich in protein. It is one of the most popular pulses, being main source of protein in a vegetarian diet.

✅Explanation: The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is the primary international institute concerned with research on pearl millet. ICRISAT focuses on improving the productivity and sustainability of crops such as pearl millet, sorghum, and groundnut, particularly in semi-arid regions. 📌Other Options Explanations:○ (a) ICARDA: The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) focuses more on crops like wheat, barley, and legumes in dry regions.○ (b) CIMMYT: The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) focuses primarily on maize and wheat research.○ (c) CIAT: The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) focuses on tropical crops like cassava, beans, and rice.🔑Key Points  International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT):o ICRISAT focuses on legumes and cereals, including millets, that are important for food security in the semi-arid areas of the world.o The main genebank collection is at the centre’s headquarters in Hyderabad, India, and there are three regional gene banks in Kenya, Niger, and Zimbabwe.o More than 126,830 accessions are listed in Genesys.o The International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is located in Hyderabad.o Eight nations have come together at the ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics) to understand the challenges and find solutions to tackle the rapidly growing problem of Fall Armyworm (FAW).o Representatives from Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, India and some other South and South-East Asian countries are attending a regional workshop on ‘Fall Armyworm management in Asia’.o The U.S. is working to address the FAW in several African countries.o As the FAW has emerged in South and South-East Asia, collaboration is urgently required to manage its spread and minimise crop loss.

✅Explanation: Khaira disease primarily affects paddy (rice). It is caused by a deficiency of zinc in the soil, leading to symptoms such as interveinal chlorosis (yellowing of leaves) and stunted growth in rice plants. Important Points Khaira disease of Rice first appeared in India at Pantnagar, Uttarkhand, and was reported by Y.L. Nene. Because of Zn deficiency in rice plants affected with the Khaira disease. Symptoms: Initially yellow color spots appear on leaves which later on turn to brown spots. These spots will appear on the upper side of the leaves. This disease will appear both in the nursery and main field.

✅Explanation: Soybeans can be classified botanically as:Oilseed crop: Soybeans are primarily grown for their oil, which is extracted for use in cooking and as a raw material in various industrial products.Pulse crop: Soybeans are also considered a pulse crop due to their high protein content, which is a significant source of plant-based protein for both human and animal consumption.Legume crop: Soybeans belong to the legume family (Fabaceae), meaning they are nitrogen-fixing plants that help improve soil fertility.

✅Explanation: A current meter is an instrument used to measure the velocity of water flow in rivers, streams, and other bodies of water. It helps determine how fast the water is moving, which is crucial for hydrological studies, water management, and environmental monitoring. 📌Other Options Explanations:○ (a) Electric current: Electrical current meters are used to measure the flow of electricity.○ (b) Rainfall: Rain gauges are used to measure the amount of rainfall.🛑Additional Information: Current meter: It is the device that is used to measure the velocity of the flow of fluid.The relation between velocity and the number of revolutions completed by current meter isV = a × N + bWhere,V = velocity in m/s, and N = Number of revolutions done by current meter in 1 seconda & b = current meter constant.

✅Explanation: The volume of water at rest is typically measured in cubic metres (m³). This is the standard unit for measuring the three-dimensional space occupied by a liquid, including water.📌Other Options Explanations:○ (a) Litre/minute: Litres per minute (L/min) is a unit of flow rate. It indicates the amount of liquid passing a point per minute.○ (c) Square metre (m²): Square meters measure area.○ (d) Kilogram/minute: Kilograms per minute (kg/min) is a unit of mass flow rate. It indicates the amount of mass passing a point per minute.

✅Explanation: To calculate how much water is discharged in 5 minutes, we can follow these steps:Given:Discharge rate = 0.4 cubic meters per minute (m³/min)Time = 5 minutesCalculate the total volume discharged:Total volume=Discharge rate × TimeTotal volume=0.4m3/min×5min=2m 3Convert cubic meters to liters:1 cubic meter (m³) = 1,000 liters.Total volume in liters=2m3×1,000liters/m3=2,000liters

✅Explanation: Medium irrigation projects generally have a command area ranging from 2,000 to 10,000 hectares. This size allows for the irrigation of a substantial area while being manageable within the constraints of infrastructure and resources.🔑Key Points  Irrigation in India:o ​Irrigation Projects in India are classified into three categories viz. Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation. Projects which have a Cultivable Command Area (CCA) of more than 10,000 hectares is termed as Major Projects, those which have a CCA of less than 10,000 hectares but more than 2,000 hectares are termed as Medium projects and those Irrigation Projects which have a CCA of 2,000 hectares or less are known as Minor projects.

✅Explanation:  An open pan evaporator is used to measure evaporation from a water surface. It is a commonly used tool in meteorology and agriculture to estimate the amount of water lost due to evaporation from a given area.📌Other Options Explanations: Evapotranspiration is a combination of both evaporation and transpiration (water loss from plants). However, an open pan evaporator specifically measures evaporation, not transpiration, which requires other instruments to measure the water loss through plants. 🛑Additional Information: Evaporation is a cooling process in which latent heat of vaporization must be provided by the water body. Vaporization rate increases due to faster winds but if the wind velocity is sufficient to remove all the vapor above the water surface, then any further increase in wind velocity will not affect the evaporation rate. Cetyl Alcohol is used to reduce the evaporation rate.Evaporation is measured using an open pan. The most commonly used evaporation pan is Class A evaporation pan.Class A evaporation pan is cylindrical in shape having 120.7 cm diameter and has a depth of 25 cm.This pan rest on a carefully leveled, wooden base and is mostly enclosed by a metal fence to prevent animals drinking from it.Important PointsInstrument for measurement of evapotranspiration → IysimeterInstrument for measurement of capillary potential → TensiometerInstrument for measurement of humidity → HygrometerInstrument for measurement of radiation from sun → PyranometerInstrument for measurement of wind velocity → Anemometer

✅Explanation: A Parshall Flume (PF) is a type of open-channel flow measurement device. The size of a Parshall Flume is typically indicated by the width of the throat (the narrowest section of the flume) because the flow rate is highly dependent on the dimensions of the throat. The throat width helps determine the capacity of the flume to measure flow based on the head (the water height) at the throat.📌Other Options Explanations: Length of the PF: While the length of the flume is relevant to its design, it is not used as a primary parameter for indicating its size or flow capacity. Flow measurement in Parshall Flumes is typically expressed in terms of the throat width, and standard tables and calibration curves are often based on this dimension.

✅Explanation: Maize is sensitive to both extremes of water availability: Waterlogging: Maize is highly sensitive to excessive water, and prolonged waterlogging can deprive the roots of oxygen, leading to poor root development, nutrient uptake issues, and ultimately, reduced growth and yield. Water stress (Drought): On the other hand, maize is also sensitive to water stress, especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages. Insufficient water can lead to poor pollination, kernel abortion, and reduced grain yield.🛑Additional Information: Water logging: It is the condition of land in which the soil profile is saturated with water either temporarily or permanently. In waterlogged lands, the water table rises to an extent that the soil pores in the crop root zone are saturated resulting in restriction of the normal circulation of air

✅Explanation: Mung bean is referred to as golden gram because of the yellow color of its split beans after the husk has been removed.🛑Additional Information:India's Pulse Production: India is the largest producer, consumer, and importer of pulses in the world, accounting for 25% of global production, 27% of world consumption, and 14% of global imports. Pulses constitute around 20% of the area under food grains and contribute approximately 7-10% of the total food grain production in India. Rabi pulses contribute more than 60% of the total pulse production in the country.Major Pulses: Some of the primary pulses grown and consumed in India include Gram (Chickpeas), Tur/Arhar (Pigeon Peas), Moong (Green Gram), Urad (Black Gram), Masoor (Lentils), and Rajma (Red Kidney Beans).

✅Explanation: Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is the first pulse crop in which a commercial hybrid was developed. The hybridization of pigeon pea was a significant achievement in agricultural science, as it led to the development of varieties with higher yield potential, better disease resistance, and improved adaptability to diverse growing conditions.The first commercial hybrid of pigeon pea, ICPH 2671, was developed by ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics). It demonstrated up to 40% higher yields than traditional varieties.

✅Explanation: Acclimatization refers to the ability of an organism to adjust to a new environment or changes in its surroundings over a short period. For example, humans acclimatize to high altitudes by increasing red blood cell production to cope with lower oxygen levels.🛑Additional Information: Acclimatisation and Adaptation: The process of changes that can occur in an organism over a short period of time that helps it to adjust to its surroundings is known as acclimatization. Acclimatization is irreversible and temporary. Adaptation is the changes in an organism over a long period of time, whereas acclimatization is change over a short period of time.

✅Explanation:  Kerala is referred to as the "Spice Garden of India" due to its long-standing history of spice cultivation and export. It is particularly famous for producing black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and other aromatic spices. The state's tropical climate, fertile soil, and consistent rainfall provide the ideal conditions for growing a wide variety of spices.📌Other Options Explanations:Rajasthan: Known for its arid climate, it is famous for crops like pearl millet and cumin.Karnataka: Produces spices like pepper and cardamom.Gujarat: Known for crops like groundnut and cotton.🔑Key Points  Kerala is the largest producer of cardamom in India. Cardamom is called the queen of spices. The commercial part of cardamom is the fruit (capsule) of the plant that is used as a spice and a flavouring agent. Kerala’s reputation as the land of spices goes back at least 3,000 years. Kerala is known as the spice garden of India. Traders from ancient Phoenicia made tours to Kerala to carry back spices to Mediterranean lands. In the case of pepper, ginger, turmeric, nutmeg, and cardamom, there has been a decrease in productivity in the state due to adverse weather conditions like long dry spells and short periods of intense rainfall. For cardamom, tropical, hot, and humid climates are suitable. The ideal humidity level is 75%. For the past few years, Kerala has been receiving only 40% of its share of summer rainfall.

✅Explanation:  Water used by plants for metabolic needs such as growth, photosynthesis, and other physiological processes is less than 1% of the total water absorbed by the plant. The majority of water absorbed by plants (around 99%) is lost through transpiration, which is essential for maintaining plant temperature and enabling the upward transport of nutrients.

✅Explanation:  A lysimeter is an instrument used to measure evapotranspiration, which is the combined process of evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration by plants. It works by isolating a section of soil and vegetation, allowing precise measurement of water inputs (like rainfall or irrigation) and outputs (like water lost through evapotranspiration). 🛑Additional Information:  Evapotranspiration: It is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches atmosphere as water vapour. A Lysimeter is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of actual evapotranspiration which is released by plants (usually crops or trees). By recording the amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the amount of water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated. Lysimeters are of two types: weighing and non-weighing.

✅Explanation: The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere where most weather phenomena occur.The height of the troposphere varies with latitude and season:At the equator, it is approximately 18 km due to the intense heating and upward movement of air.At the poles, it is much lower, around 8-10 km, because of the colder temperatures and less convection.🔑Key Points Troposphere The lowermost layer of the atmosphere with an average height of 13 km (18 km over the equator and 8 km over the poles). The air we breathe exists here. Almost all the weather phenomena (like rainfall, fog, clouds, dew, frost and hailstorm) occur in this layer. Temperature decreases with increasing height at the rate of 6.5℃ per 1000m. This is called normal lapse rate. The height of the troposphere varies from the equator towards the pole (decreases towards the poles) and from one season to another (increases during summer while decreases during winter) during a year. The upper limit is called the tropopause which is 1.5 km thick. (The word “troposphere” literally means “zone/region of mixing” and tropopause means “where the mixing stops”).🛑Additional Information:Stratosphere Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere. It extends up to a height of 50 km. This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes. One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ozone gas between the height of 15 to 30 km (also called Ozonosphere). Temperature increases with height due to the absorption of UV rays by the ozone layer. The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause.Mesosphere Lying above the stratosphere this is the third layer of the atmosphere and extends between 50 km and 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from space. Temperature decreases with increasing height again. The uppermost limit is the mesopause where the temperature becomes -80℃.Thermosphere Temperature here rises very rapidly with increasing height. The International Space Station is situated in this layer. It is further divided into two layers:Ionosphere: It extends between 80 - 400 km. This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. Includes a number of ionic layers with increasing heights like the D layer, E layer, F layer and G layer.Exosphere: This is the upper most layer of the atmosphere. This layer has very thin air. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here. The density here is very low and the atmosphere resembles a nebula because it is highly rarefied.

✅Explanation: Minimum thermometers are designed to measure the lowest temperature in a given period.Alcohol is used because: It has a lower freezing point than mercury, making it suitable for very cold environments. It can measure temperatures as low as -70°C or below, depending on its composition. Alcohol can be dyed (e.g., red, blue, or green) for better visibility in the thermometer tube.

✅Explanation:  Nitrogen gas (N₂) constitutes approximately 78.09% of the Earth's atmosphere by volume. It is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere, followed by oxygen (20.95%) and trace gases like argon, carbon dioxide, and others. 🛑Additional Information: Nitrogen and Oxygen are the main components in the Earth's atmosphere by volume as these two gases together account for 99% of the atmosphere. Nitrogen(N2): A colourless and tasteless gas, accounts for approx 78% of the atmosphere. It is a major component of chlorophyll and amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Oxygen(O2): A colourless, odourless and tasteless gas, accounts for approx 21% of the atmosphere and makes life possible. Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere (by Volume): Nitrogen (N₂): 78.084% Oxygen (O₂): 20.946% Argon (Ar): 0.934% Carbon dioxide (CO₂): 0.036% Neon (Ne): 0.00182% Helium (He): 0.000524% Krypton (Kr): 0.000114% Hydrogen (H₂): 0.00005%

✅Explanation: The range of 400-700 nm is known as the Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR), where light energy is effectively used by plants for photosynthesis.📌Other Options Explanations: < 400 nm: This range includes ultraviolet (UV) light. 700-1000 nm: This range includes infrared radiation. > 1000 nm: Longwave infrared and other wavelengths.Important 🔑Key Points The pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b absorb light primarily in the blue (around 430-450 nm) and red (around 640-680 nm) parts of the spectrum, making this range critical for photosynthesis.Photosynthesis:  The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to capture the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used to synthesise (prepare) food from carbon dioxide and water. Since the synthesis of food occurs in the presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis.In the presence of sunlight Carbon dioxide + water → Carbohydrate + oxygen. Some plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria can perform photosynthesis. The process of photosynthesis is commonly written as 6CO2 + 6H2O + Sun-Light → C6H12O6 + 6O2✅Explanation:  Photosynthesis is maximum in the Red colour of Light and Least in the Green colour of Light. In the absorption spectrum, the red & blue lights are absorbed while the majority of green light gets reflected Photosynthesis range from 400 to 700 nm, It absorbs the Violet, Blue and Red colour of Light. In white light all the colour spectrum energies are involved so, maximum photosynthesis is taken place in white light.

✅Explanation: Wheat is classified as a long-day plant. This means that it requires a certain amount of daylight to trigger flowering. Wheat typically flowers when the day length reaches a threshold, which varies depending on the wheat variety and environmental conditions. 📌Other Options Explanations: a) Short-day plant: Short-day plants flower when the day length is shorter than a critical threshold.  c) Day-neutral plant: Day-neutral plants flower regardless of day length.🔑Key Points  Photoperiodism or photoperiod response is a physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. It is basically a developmental response of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark periods, for their flowering. According to photoperiodism plants can be classified into:1. Short day plants - These plants give flowers on exposure to photoperiod equal or shorter than their critical day length. Flower initiation takes place when days are short less than ten hours.E.g. rice, Jowar, green gram, black gram, etc.2. Long day plants - These plants give flowers on exposure to photoperiod longer than their critical day length. Require long days more than ten hours for floral ignition.E.g. Wheat, Barley3. Day-neutral plants - These plants do not require any specific light period for flowering. The rate of the flowering initiation depends on how short or long the is photoperiod. Shorter the days, more rapid initiation of flowering in short days plants. The longer the days more rapid are the initiation of flowering in long days plants. E.g. Cotton, sunflower

✅Explanation: Dew point is the temperature at which air must be cooled for it to reach 100% relative humidity, meaning it has cooled enough for the water vapor to condense into liquid water.📌Other Options Explanations:b) Critical point: The critical point refers to the temperature and pressure at which the liquid and gas phases of a substance become indistinguishable. c) Freezing point: The freezing point is the temperature at which water turns from a liquid to a solid. d) Melting point: The melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid.🛑Additional Information: Dew point temperature (DPT): Water vapour in air exists in the superheated state (state 1) and the air is highly unsaturated. When it gets cool at constant pressure, it meets the saturation vapour curve where the moisture of condensation begins.The temperature at this point is known as the dew point temperature. The dew point is the temperature at which air is saturated with water vapor, which is the gaseous state of water. When air has reached the dew-point temperature at a particular pressure, the water vapor in the air is in equilibrium with liquid water, meaning water vapor is condensing at the same rate at which liquid water is evaporating. Below the dew point, liquid water will begin to condense on solid surfaces (such as blades of grass) or around solid particles in the atmosphere (such as dust or salt), forming clouds or fog. Dew point temperature is expressed in Celsius or Fahrenheit.

✅Explanation: As altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure generally decreases. This happens because the density of air decreases as you go higher in the atmosphere, resulting in less air pressing down from above.

✅Explanation: The botanical name of red gram, also known as pigeon pea, is Cajanus cajan. It is a leguminous plant commonly grown in tropical and subtropical regions.📌Other Options Explanations: a) Ricinus communis: This is the botanical name for the castor bean plant. c) Vigna radiata: This is the botanical name for mung bean.🛑Additional Information: Pigeon Pea- Scientifically known as Cajanus Cajan. Pigeon pea or Toor Dal is a traditionally Kharif crop sown in June-July with the onset of Monsoon in various agro-climatic zones of India. Pigeon Pea belongs to the widespread family of pulses. In India Pigeon Pea is more popular as Arhar or red gram In India, split pigeon peas (toor dal) are one of the most popular pulses. Being an important source of protein in a mostly vegetarian diet. In regions where it grows, fresh young pods are eaten as a vegetable. The split dried seeds are used as a lentil, in dishes such as sambar (lentil soup).

✅Explanation: Dhaincha (scientific name: Sesbania bispinosa) is primarily used as a green manuring crop. It is grown to improve soil fertility by adding organic matter to the soil when plowed under.🔑Key Points  Green manures are the crops which are grown primarily for building and maintaining soil fertility and structure. Green manure crops should be such that it can be grown quickly. It means growing green crops of Leguminous plants i.e nitrogen fixer. ​Leguminous green manure crops:o Sunhemp, Dhaincha, Blackgram, Mung, Cowpea, Khesri, Berseem, Azolla, Rice bean, Soyabean, Lentil, Pea. The best time at which the crop should be incorporated in the soil as green manure is when it reaches the flowering stage. Characteristics of Green Manuring Crops :o Tolerant to adverse climatic conditions such as drought, waterlogging, high and lowo Temperature etc and tolerant to pests and diseases.o Should possess adequate Rhizobium nodulation potential and must be effective nitrogen fixer.o Should be capable of growing very fast and capable of accumulating sufficient fixed Nitrogen in 4-6 weeks.o Easy to incorporate and quickly decomposable. Some of the reasons to grow green manures are:-o Supplying nitrogen and other nutrients for a crop.o Preventing the leaching of soluble nutrients from the soil.o Providing ground cover to prevent damage to soil structure.o Bringing crop nutrients up from lower soil profiles.o Getting rid of weeds and preventing weed seedling growth.o Aids in the reclamation of saline and alkaline soils by the release of organic acids.

✅Explanation: Phyllody disease is commonly found in sesame (Sesamum indicum). It is caused by bacteria or viruses, leading to abnormal growth, where the leaves transform into petal-like structures, affecting the crop's yield and quality. 🛑Additional Information: Phyllody – Candidatus phytoplasmaSymptoms:Floral parts transform into green, leafy structures (Phylloid structure).Small leaves and malformed flowers cluster at the top, flowers become sterile.Stamens are leaf-like, anthers are green, ovary transforms into shoot-like structure.Plants show reduced internodes and a bushy appearance.Identification of Pathogen:Vector: Jassid – Orosius albicinctus.Favourable Conditions:High relative humidity (> 85%).Heavy rainfall.Low temperature (20-25ºC).Mode of Spread and Survival:Transmitted by Jassids (Orosius albicinctus).Management:Remove and destroy infected plants.Control vector: Spray NSKE @ 5% or neem oil @ 2%.Seed treatment with Imidacloprid 600 FS @ 7.5 ml/kg.Spray Quinalphos 25 EC 800 ml/ac or Thiamethoxam 25WG @ 40 g/ac or Imidacloprid 17.8SL @ 40 ml/ac.Intercropping of Sesamum + Redgram (6:1 ratio).

✅Explanation: Chenopodium murale, commonly known as nettle-leaved goosefoot, is a common weed during the Rabi season. This plant thrives in the cooler temperatures of the Rabi season (winter-spring) when crops like wheat and barley are grown.Important Points Wheat:Phalaris MinorAvena fatuaChenopodium albumChenopodium muraleConvolvulus arvensisCynodon dactylonPaddy:Purple nutsedgeBanyard grassWild riceYellow sedgePea:PiyaziAnagallis arvensisAvena ludovicianaChenopodium albumConvolvulus arvensisCyperus rotundusFumaria parvifloraGalium aparineBarseen:Kasni (Cichorium intybus)Cyperus rotundusCynodon dactylonMelilotus indicaAnagallis arvensis

✅Explanation: Fluchloralin is a pre-emergence herbicide, which means it is most effective when applied before the weeds or crops have emerged from the soil. This timing helps to prevent weed seeds from germinating and taking root.🛑Additional Information:  Fluchloralin may be applied to the irrigated crop at 2.0 lit/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 lit/ha after sowing followed by one hand weeding 30 days after sowing. If herbicide is not used, give two hand weeding on 20 and 35 days after sowing. Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin at 2.0 lit/ha or Alachlor 4.0 lit/ha may be used in soybean wherever labour availability for timely weeding is restricted.

✅Explanation: Herbicides are chemicals specifically used to control or kill weeds. They are designed to target unwanted plants without harming the desired crops.Other Options● Nematicide: A type of pesticide used to control nematodes (microscopic worms).● Pesticide: A broad term encompassing insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and other substances used to control pests.● Fungicide: A type of pesticide used to control fungal diseases in plants.🔑Key Points  Herbicideso Herbicides are used in agricultural and wildland ecosystems to reduce the density of weeds and promote the growth of desirable species.o The use of herbicides in agroecosystems may change the composition of weed populations.o In wildlands, herbicides may increase the diversity of native species.o Example - Sodium chlorate.o Similarly, Threats to plant biodiversity caused by habitat loss and invasive species are far greater than threats by the use of herbicides. 🛑Additional Information: Herbicides can be classified in different ways:o By chemical name.o By chemical characteristics of the compound.o By toxicity.o By mode of action. There are two major categories of herbicides classified by mode of action:o Contact herbicides.o Translocated herbicides.

✅Explanation: Echinochloa colonum, commonly known as Jungle rice, closely resembles rice plants (paddy) in appearance, making it difficult to distinguish and control in rice fields. Its similar growth habit and structure lead to challenges in managing this weed.🛑Additional Information:  Echinochloa is a cosmopolitan weed common in crops (mainly rice, maize, and vegetables.) Annual kharif weeds are Eleusine, echinocloa, celosia, cyperus. It is a serious weed of rice crop. It is a close resemblance to rice seedlings, it is transplanted with them and is usually difficult to weed out manually.

✅Explanation: The hand hoe is the most commonly used tool by small-scale farmers for weeding. It is a simple, manual tool that allows farmers to remove weeds in their fields efficiently, especially in small and medium-sized plots where mechanized equipment may not be feasible.📌Other Options Explanations:● Spade: Primarily used for digging and soil preparation.● Cultivator: Useful for tilling and soil preparation.● Blade Harrow: Good for surface-level weed removal.🔑Key Points  Wheel hoe tool is used for Weeding. A hoe is an ancient and versatile agricultural and horticultural hand tool used to shape soil, remove weeds, clear soil, and harvest root crops.  Wheel Hoe is the ultimate garden tool for growing food in your vegetable garden. Save time and energy by using a Wheel Hoe to cultivate and weed your garden. Weeding is the removal of weeds from the field. It is an effective pre-harvesting method of crop protection and crop production management. Weeds act as competitors of the crop for various resources required for growth like nutrients, light, water, etc. so it has to be removed as it may cause interference and decrease the yield.

✅Explanation: Sorghum halepense, commonly known as Johnson grass, belongs to the grass family (Gramineae). It is a perennial weed that grows in many agricultural fields and is known for its vigorous growth and difficulty in control.📌Other Options Explanations: (a) Cyperus rotundus (Nutgrass): Nutgrass belongs to the Cyperaceae family. (b) Brassica sinensis (Mustard): Mustard belongs to the Brassicaceae family. (c) Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy): Mexican poppy belongs to the Papaveraceae family.

✅Explanation: Nitrogen-Fixing WeedsCertain plants can fix nitrogen in the soil through symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobia) present in root nodules. These plants are often legumes and contribute to improving soil fertility.Melilotus indica (Indian Melilot)Belongs to the family Fabaceae (legumes), which is known for nitrogen-fixing abilities.It forms nodules on its roots, housing Rhizobium bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form.Commonly used as a green manure crop for soil improvement.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Leucus aspera (White Sage): This is a non-leguminous weed.c) Cynodon dactylon (Ditchgrass): A grass species (Poaceae family) that spreads through rhizomes. While it is a hardy plant and prevents soil erosion.d) Lantana camara (Lantana): A highly invasive shrub that is detrimental to ecosystems.🛑Additional Information: Characteristics of Melilotus indica (Indian Melilot):Botanical Classification:Family: Fabaceae (Legume family)Genus: MelilotusSpecies: indicaCommon Names: Indian Melilot, Sweet Clover, Small Yellow MelilotEcological Significance:Nitrogen Fixation:Forms symbiotic associations with Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules, fixing atmospheric nitrogen into the soil.Enhances soil fertility, making it a valuable green manure crop.Soil Adaptability:Thrives in poor, sandy, or clayey soils.Tolerates drought and slightly saline conditions.Erosion Control:The fibrous root system binds soil particles, preventing erosion.

✅Explanation: The Solanaceae family, commonly known as the nightshade family, includes plants that are typically characterized by their alkaloid content and specific floral structure. This family contains various economically and ecologically important plants such as tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, peppers, and nightshades.Solanum xanthocarpum (Yellow-fruited Nightshade)Family: SolanaceaeThis plant is a spiny shrub and a member of the Solanaceae family. It is widely used in traditional medicine and is closely related to other nightshades.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Celosia sp. (Celosia) Family: Amaranthaceae Celosia is an ornamental plant and sometimes used as a leafy vegetable. c) Saccharum munja (Munja grass)Family: Poaceae (Grass family)Saccharum munja is a type of grass commonly found in arid regions. It belongs to the grass family.d) Lolium rigidum (Annual ryegrass)Family: Poaceae (Grass family)Annual ryegrass is a weed primarily found in cereal cropping systems.🛑Additional Information: Traditional Medicine Use:Solanum xanthocarpum, a member of the Solanaceae family, has been widely used in traditional medicine for treating various infectious and degenerative diseases.Antioxidant Properties:The fruit exhibits significant antioxidant activity, which helps neutralize harmful free radicals and prevents oxidative damage to cells.Anticancer Potential:Studies report its efficacy in inhibiting cancer cell growth, making it a promising candidate for anticancer therapy.Anti-HIV Activity:The fruit has shown potential as an anti-HIV agent, suggesting its possible role in the management of HIV infections.Medicinal Significance:These properties underline the medicinal importance of S. xanthocarpum fruit in developing therapeutic agents for various diseases.

✅Explanation: This weed has significant medicinal value. In traditional medicine, it is used to treat various ailments such as liver disorders, ulcers, and skin diseases. It is considered an important herb in Ayurveda and other traditional medicine systems.📌Other Options Explanations: Chenopodium album (Lamb's quarters): It is an edible weed used as a leafy vegetable in some cultures. Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass): This is considered a problematic weed in agriculture and is toxic to livestock under certain conditions due to cyanogenic glycosides.

✅Explanation: The critical period for weed competition in Kharif pulses (legumes) typically occurs during the initial growth stages, as weeds compete with crops for light, nutrients, and water during this time.Critical period for weed competition: This is the period during which the crop is most sensitive to weed competition. Proper weed control during this time is crucial for ensuring optimal growth and yield. In Kharif pulses, the initial stages of crop growth (especially the first 15–30 days) are critical because the seedlings are establishing their root systems and above-ground growth.🛑Additional Information: Critical period for weed competition for each crop: Rice (Transplanted): 15–45 days Upland Rice: Entire crop period Wheat: 30–45 days Maize: 15–45 days Sorghum: 15–45 days Finger Millet: 15–45 days Soybean: 25–45 days Blackgram: 15–45 days Cotton: 30–60 days Sugarcane: 30–120 days Groundnut: 30–50 days Sunflower: 30–45 days Castor: 30–60 days Sesame: 15–45 days

✅Explanation: Cyperus rotundus (nutgrass) primarily reproduces through tubers. These underground structures store energy and help the plant spread vegetatively. Each tuber can grow into a new plant, making nutgrass a highly invasive species.📌Other Options Explanations: (b) Stolons: This is typical of some other plants like strawberries or creeping thyme. (c) Bulb:. Bulbs are characteristic of plants like onions or garlic.🛑Additional Information: WeedsWeeds are unwanted plants in cultivated fields.Examples, Xanthium (gokhroo), Cyperinus rotundus (motha), Parthenium (gajar ghas).Field crops are infested by a large number of weeds, diseases, and insect pests. Weeds that are not controlled at the appropriate time can cause significant crop damage, resulting in the loss of the majority of the crop.They compete for food, space, and light. Weeds take up nutrients from the plants and reduce the growth of the crop.Weeds also produce toxic substances by which the growth of the crop is reduced and hence less yield is obtained.Thus, weeds also affect the health of the crop and reduce yields.As a result, weed removal from cultivated fields during the early stages of crop growth is essential for a good harvest.Pesticides, which include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides, are one of the most commonly used methods for weed control.

✅Explanation: Parthenium hysterophorus (commonly known as Parthenium weed) is an alien weed. It is native to the Americas but has become invasive in several parts of the world, including India and Africa, causing significant environmental and agricultural problems.📌Other Options Explanations:(a) Chenopodium album (Lamb's quarters):This plant, also known as lamb's quarters, is a native species in many parts of the world, particularly in temperate regions. 🔑Key Points  Parthenium is commonly known as ‘gajar ghas' or 'congress grass’. Parthenium: Parthenium or Gajar Ghans is the most common invasive species in India. Parthenium hysterophorus plant causes milk disease in livestock and also responsible for respiratory malfunction in humans. Contact with the plant causes dermatitis in cattle and domestic animals. The main substance responsible is Parthenium, which is dangerously toxic.

✅Explanation: Pendimethalin is a pre-emergence herbicide that has a long residual activity in the soil. It can control weeds for an extended period (several weeks to months) by preventing seed germination and early growth of weeds. This long-lasting effect makes it particularly useful for prolonged weed control in crops.Other options (a) Paraquat:Paraquat is a contact herbicide, meaning it only affects the parts of the plant it directly contacts.  (c) 2,4-D:2,4-D is a systemic herbicide used for controlling broadleaf weeds. It is typically effective for a shorter period compared to pendimethalin. (d) Glyphosate:Glyphosate is a systemic herbicide that works by being absorbed by plant leaves and stems. 🛑Additional Information: Herbicide is derived from Latin word, Herba (plant) and Caedre (to kill), means chemicals that kills or suppress the unwanted vegetations.Based on mode of action:1. Contact herbicide:These herbicides are being less mobility, kills the plant primarily by contact with the plant tissue.Paraquat, diquat, propanil, oxyflurfen are examples of systemic herbicides.2. Systemic or translocated herbicides:Herbicide moves within the plant from the point of treatment to its other part to variable extent.All herbicides except contact are systemic in nature.2, 4-D, atrazine, pendimethalin, glyphosate, metribuzin are systemic herbicides.Atrazine is systemic and contact herbicide.

✅Explanation: Asphodelus tenuifolius, commonly known as Pyaji, is a weed that typically thrives in the Rabi season (winter season) in India. This weed is known to be invasive during the cooler months when crops like wheat, barley, and other rabi-season crops are grown. 📌Other Options Explanations:(b) Kharif:The Kharif season refers to the monsoon (summer) crop season, which includes crops like rice, maize, and cotton. (c) Zaid:Zaid is a short-season crop period between the rabi and kharif seasons, typically used for crops like watermelon, cucumber, and pumpkin.🛑Additional Information: Asphodelus tenuifoliusScientific classification: Belongs to the Asphodelaceae family. Native regions:North AfricaSouthern EuropeMiddle EastSouth AsiaIntroduced regions:AustraliaMascarene IslandsPresence:From the Canary IslandsAcross the MediterraneanTo the Middle East and AfghanistanRoot system: Fibrous root system

✅Explanation: The Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR) is a premier research institute for sugarcane improvement located in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.🔑Key Points  The Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR), Lucknow was established in 1952 by the erstwhile Indian Central Sugarcane Committee. The Government of India took over the Institute from the Indian Central Sugarcane Committee on 1st January 1954. On April 1, 1969, it was transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi along with other central agricultural research institutes.

✅Explanation: The solar constant is the amount of solar radiation received per unit area at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun, typically measured in units of energy per square centimeter per minute. The corrected value of the solar constant is approximately 1.94 cal/cm²/min.

✅Explanation: Cumulonimbus clouds are large, towering clouds typically associated with thunderstorms. They are capable of producing severe weather phenomena, including heavy rainfall, lightning, hail, and even tornadoes. These clouds form due to strong upward air currents and can extend high into the atmosphere. 📌Other Options Explanations:○ (a) Cumulus clouds: These are puffy, fair-weather clouds.○ (c) Stratus clouds: These are sheet-like clouds that can cause light drizzle or mist.🛑Additional Information: Cirrus Cumulus Clouds are associated with detached thin clouds formed at an altitude of 8000-12000 m. They have a feathery appearance and are white in color. Cumulus Clouds exist as cotton wool at an altitude of 4000-7000 m. Stratus Clouds are layered, stratified and horizontal formed by loss of heat. Cumulonimbus are associated with thunderheads, which produce thunder and lightning.Nimbostratus cloud: A Nimbostratus cloud is a type of cloud characterized by its thick, dark, and featureless appearance. It is a low-level cloud that usually covers the entire sky like a blanket and brings steady, prolonged rain or snow. The term "nimbo" refers to its ability to produce precipitation, such as rain or snow, while "stratus" indicates its layered and widespread nature. Nimbostratus clouds often form ahead of warm or occluded fronts, and their continuous precipitation can last for hours or even days. These clouds are typically gray in color and can create overcast conditions, obscuring the sun and reducing visibility.

✅Explanation: The lapse rate refers to the rate at which the temperature decreases with an increase in altitude in the atmosphere. Typically, the temperature decreases at a rate of about 6.5°C for every kilometer of ascent in the troposphere.📌Other Options Explanations:b) Adiabatic lapse rate: This refers specifically to the rate of temperature change of a rising or sinking air parcel without heat exchange with the environment. It can vary depending on whether the air is dry or saturated.c) Inversion: Temperature inversion is a situation where the temperature increases with altitude.🔑Key Points  In the Troposphere, every 165 metres of elevation gain results in a 1 degree Celsius drop in temperature. This is called the normal lapse rate. Lapse rate - the rate at which the temperature changes when an object ascends through the atmosphere. The temperature is regarded as decreasing with height when the lapse rate is positive, constant with elevation when it is zero, and increasing with elevation when it is negative.

Intercropping is the agricultural practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field, but in alternating rows. This technique is used to optimize the use of resources such as light, water, and nutrients, and can also help in pest control and improving soil health.Breakdown of incorrect options:b) Sequential cropping: This refers to growing different crops in a field during different seasons, one after another.c) Mixed cropping: This involves growing two or more crops together in the same field, but not necessarily in alternating rows, and usually in a random or mixed pattern.d) Inter-row cropping: This specifically refers to growing crops between the rows of another crop, often used with larger crops, rather than alternating rows.🔑Key Points  Intercropping involves growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in definite pattern but they are not mixed with each other.o They are grown inset pattern.o They are grown in alternating rows.o This pattern prevents pests and diseases to spread in all the plants of one crop in the field.🛑Additional Information: Mixed cropping is the practice of cultivating more than one crop, which is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field.o For example, wheat + gram, wheat + mustard, etc. crops are selected such that their nutrient requirements are different. In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is produced by cross-pollinated plants.o Hybrids are chosen to improve the characteristics of the resulting plants, such as better yield, greater uniformity, improved color, disease resistance.o An important factor is the heterosis or combining ability of the parent plants.

✅Explanation: The ozone layer is primarily located in the stratosphere, at an altitude of approximately 15 to 35 kilometers above the Earth's surface. It plays a crucial role in absorbing the majority of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, thereby protecting life on Earth.Breakdown of incorrect options:a) Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather phenomena occur.c) Mesosphere: This layer lies above the stratosphere and is known for meteor burning.d) Exosphere: The exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere, where the air is extremely thin.Important PointsOzone layer:​ o Chemical Formula: O3 o Ozone is the Allotropes of oxygen.o The Colour of the ozone is Light blue.o Ozone Day: 16 September.o The ozone layer is the protection guard of Earth.o It protects us from UV rays.o The thickness of the ozone layer is measured in Dobson.o The spectrophotometer is used to measure ozone depletion.o The ozone layer is thick at the pole and thin at the Equator.o Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) gas creates holes in the ozone layer.​🛑Additional Information: The atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the diversity of temperature and density. They are:-1. Troposphere2. Stratosphere3. Mesosphere4. Thermosphere (Ionosphere)5. Exosphere Troposphere - It is considered the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.o The troposphere starts at the surface of the Earth and goes up to a height of 7 to 20 km.o All-weather occurs within this layer.o Temperature decreases at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of height.o Tropopause separates the troposphere and stratosphere.​ Stratosphere - It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the troposphere.o It extends up to 50 km in height.o This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is above stormy weather and has steady, strong, horizontal winds.o The ozone layer is found in this layer.o The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards the Earth from harmful radiation.o Stratopause separates the stratosphere and mesosphere.​ Mesosphere - The mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.o It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.o The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of the Earth and goes up to 85 km.o By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.o Meteors burn up in this layer.o The upper limit is called Mesopause which separates the mesosphere and thermosphere​. Thermosphere - This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.o Radio waves that are transmitted from the Earth are reflected by this layer.o The temperature increases with height.o Aurora and satellites occur in this layer. Exosphere - It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.o The zone where molecules and atoms escape into space is mentioned as the exosphere.o It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.

✅Explanation: The Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) is located in Hyderabad, Telangana. It is a premier institute under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) that focuses on research and development in dryland and rainfed agriculture, aiming to improve productivity and sustainability in regions with limited water resources. It is established in 1985.

✅Explanation: The Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology (NDUAT) is located in Kumarganj, which is in the Faizabad district (now part of Ayodhya district) in Uttar Pradesh. It is a prominent agricultural university established to promote education, research, and extension activities in agriculture and allied sciences.

✅Explanation: A cash crop is grown primarily for sale and profit rather than for subsistence. Cotton is a significant cash crop widely cultivated for its fiber, which is used in the textile industry. It is grown for commercial purposes and contributes substantially to the economy. Some other cash crops are: Jute Tobacco Coffee sugarcane Cocoa Important 🔑Key Points  Cash Crops:o A cash crop is an agricultural crop that is grown for its commercial value rather than for consumption.o Cash crops are grown for sale to get profit.o Major cash crops are sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, jute, and oilseeds, etc. Food crops:o Agricultural Crops that are grown for consumption are called as food crops.o Example: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Pulses, etc.

✅Explanation: The word Agronomy is derived from the Greek words "agros" (field) and "nomos" (management or law). Agronomy is the science and practice of crop production and soil management to optimize agricultural productivity and sustainability.🔑Key Points  Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science that deals with the study of crops and the soils in which they grow. Agronomists work to develop methods that will improve the use of soil and increase the production of food and fiber crops. AGRONOMY: consists of two Greek words i.e. Agros =field, Nomos = to manage It is mainly based on the following basic principles:o Agrometeorologyo Soils and Tillage,o Soil and Water Conservation, o Irrigation Water Management, etc. It has three distinct branches: o Crop Science (mainly field crops) o Soil scienceo Environmental Science (that deals with applied aspects)

✅Explanation: ● Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) belongs to the Gramineae family, which is also known as Poaceae. This is a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly referred to as grasses. The family includes economically significant crops such as rice, wheat, maize, and barley. Sugarcane is cultivated primarily for its juice, which is processed into sugar and other products.📌Other Options Explanations:○ (b) Cruciferae: This family includes vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, and mustard.○ (c) Umbelliferae (Apiaceae): This family encompasses vegetables like carrots, celery, and parsley.○ (d) Compositae (Asteraceae): This family includes sunflowers, daisies, and lettuce.

✅Explanation: Linseed (flax) is a crop that is typically grown during the Rabi season in India. The Rabi season crops are sown in winter (October to December) and harvested in spring (March to April). Linseed thrives in cooler climates, making it well-suited for the Rabi season.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Groundnut: Groundnut is a Kharif crop, grown during the rainy season (June to September), as it requires warm temperatures and moderate rainfall.b) Soybean: Soybean is also a Kharif crop, grown during the monsoon season.d) Cigarette tobacco: Tobacco is usually grown as a Kharif crop in India, as it requires warm temperatures and sufficient rainfall.Rabi Crops Examples:In addition to linseed, other common Rabi crops include wheat, barley, mustard, and peas.🔑Key Points Kharif Season: Kharif season in India is the monsoon season that starts in June and lasts till September. During this season, crops that require a lot of water are grown. Cotton is a major Kharif crop in India, and it is also one of the most important cash crops. It requires a lot of water and warm weather to grow. Kharif crops also are known as monsoon crops as they are cultivated in the monsoon season. Their cropping season starts in June and ends in October. These crops are sown at the beginning of the rainy season. Rice, maize, bajra, ragi, sorghum, soybean, groundnut, cotton, etc. are all Kharif types of crops.Rabi crops: Rabi crops or rabi harvest are agricultural crops that are sown in winter and harvested in the spring in India. Some example of Rabi crops is wheat, barley, gram, peas, mustard, and linseed. States from the north and northwestern parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other rabi crops. The availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate cyclones helps in the success of these crops. Mustard is a Rabi crop that is usually grown during the winter season. It requires cool weather to grow and is usually harvested in the spring. Wheat is also a Rabi crop that is grown during the winter season. It is one of the most important staple crops in India and is used to make various food items like bread, pasta, etc.Zaid Season: It is a short season between the Kharif and Rabi seasons. The crops grown during this season are known as Zaid crops. Pumpkin, cucumber, watermelon, bitter gourd, etc. are all zaid types of crops.

✅Explanation: World Food Day is observed internationally on 16th October each year. This date commemorates the founding of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1945. The day aims to raise awareness about global hunger, malnutrition, food security, and sustainable agricultural practices.It is celebrated with various events and initiatives worldwide to promote the importance of achieving "Zero Hunger" and sustainable development goals.

✅Explanation: The typical sugarcane yield in North India generally ranges from 600 to 800 quintals per hectare (q/ha). This yield range is influenced by various factors, including soil quality, irrigation practices, climate, and the variety of sugarcane being grown. In states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, this yield is considered common, although yields can be higher with modern techniques or optimized conditions.In more favorable conditions or with improved farming practices, yields can occasionally exceed this range, but 600-800 q/ha is the general average for North Indian sugarcane production

✅Explanation: Orobanche spp., commonly known as broomrape, is a genus of parasitic plants that attach to the roots of their host plants. These plants are total root parasites, meaning they derive all their nutrients and water from the host plants they infest. Broomrape species are known to parasitize a variety of crops, particularly mustard and solanaceous crops such as tomato, potato, and chili.🔑Key Points :Parasitic Nature: Orobanche species do not perform photosynthesis. Instead, they rely on the host plant for nutrients, which can lead to reduced growth, yield loss, and sometimes the death of the host plant if infestation is severe.Infestation in Crops:Mustard is a common host for broomrape, and infestation can significantly affect mustard yields.Solanaceous crops such as tomato, potato, and chili are also highly susceptible to broomrape infestations, causing damage to the crops by robbing them of essential nutrients and water.Control: Managing broomrape can be challenging due to its parasitic nature. Control strategies typically involve crop rotation, using resistant varieties, and sometimes soil fumigation. Additionally, chemical control methods may be employed, but they often require careful management to avoid environmental damage.

✅Explanation: Durum wheat (Triticum durum) is a type of tetraploid wheat, meaning it has four sets of chromosomes (2n = 4x = 28). This makes it distinct from other wheat types, such as hexaploid wheat (e.g., common wheat), which has six sets of chromosomes.Durum wheat is commonly used for producing pasta and semolina due to its high protein content and gluten strength, which are important for the texture of these products.📌Other Options Explanations:c) Hexaploid wheat: Hexaploid wheat, such as Triticum aestivum (common wheat), has six sets of chromosomes.🔑Key Points The botanical name of macroni wheat is Triticum durum.It is the hardest of all types of wheat.It is the second most cultivated species of wheat after bread wheat, which is also called common wheat or Triticum aestivum.It is typically planted in the spring and harvested in the fall.Durum wheat grains can be ground into semolina - a type of coarse flour commonly used in pasta, including couscous.They can also be used to make breakfast cereals, puddings or ground into a finer flour to make bread or pizza dough.

✅Explanation: The All India Coordinated Research Project on Pearl Millet (AICRP-PM) has its headquarters located in Jodhpur, Rajasthan. This project is aimed at improving the production of pearl millet through coordinated research efforts across India. The headquarters plays a key role in coordinating research activities, developing improved varieties, and ensuring the dissemination of findings to farmers.

✅Explanation: As of 2024, hybrid varieties are not widely available in India for wheat. While hybrids have been developed and widely adopted for crops like sorghum, pearl millet, and rice​, wheat still lacks the same level of hybrid development. The focus for wheat has been on improving traditional varieties through other breeding methods.

✅Explanation: Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) are primarily pollinated by honeybees and other pollinators, such as wild bees and butterflies. While sunflower pollen is available in large quantities, the flowers' structure and bright colors attract insects, particularly honeybees, which transfer pollen as they forage for nectar. This process is known as entomophily (insect pollination).🛑Additional Information:  Pollination is a process carried out by all flowering plants in which the matured pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma in flowering plants. There are two types of pollination:o Self-Pollination: When the pollen grains from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the same flower, or another flower on the same plant.o Cross-Pollination: When the pollen grains are transferred from the anther of one flower into the stigma of another flower of different plants of the same species.

✅Explanation: In Rajasthan, during the Kharif season (monsoon season, June to September), rice occupies the minimum area compared to other crops like maize, sorghum, and pearl millet. This is because rice requires a consistent water supply and a more humid environment, which is not as prevalent in Rajasthan's semi-arid climate. While irrigation can support rice cultivation, it is still less common in comparison to other drought-resistant crops like sorghum and pearl millet that thrive in the region's conditions.

✅Explanation: The Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI) in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, is a premier institute in India dedicated to sugarcane research and development. It plays a crucial role in developing new and improved sugarcane varieties through regular crossing programs.

✅Explanation: Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) are native to North America. They were first domesticated by Native Americans in the present-day regions of the United States and Mexico. Evidence suggests that sunflowers were cultivated as early as 3000 BC for their seeds, oil, and ornamental value. From North America, sunflowers spread to other parts of the world, where they are now widely grown as a crop and ornamental plant.Sunflower cultivation significantly increased after European settlers brought them back to Europe in the 16th century​.🔑Key Points  Regur soil is considered most suitable for sunflower cultivation. This soil is formed by lava/ash. This soil is found mainly in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka in India, so sunflower is cultivated on vast area of Maharashtra and Karnataka. This soil is also called black soil and for cotton cultivation this soil is the most appropriate.

✅Explanation: ✅Explanation: In young sorghum plant leaves, the glucosinolate compound dhurrin is present, which is a precursor to hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Dhurrin is a cyanogenic glucoside, and when the plant is damaged or consumed, enzymes can break it down to release hydrogen cyanide, which is toxic. This compound plays a role in the plant's defense mechanism.📌Other Options Explanations:b) Gossipol: This is a toxic compound found in cottonseed. It is also an anti-nutritional factor, especially for animals.c) Sinigrin: This glucosinolate is found in mustard and other plants in the Brassicaceae family.

✅Explanation: Chlorosis in pulses (leguminous crops) is often caused by iron deficiency, resulting in yellowing of the leaves. The most common corrective measure is to apply 0.5% ferrous sulphate as a foliar spray. This provides the necessary iron, which is essential for chlorophyll production, thereby helping the plant regain its green color.0.1% sulphuric acid spray (Option a) is not typically used to correct chlorosis in pulses. While sulphuric acid may be used for soil pH correction or specific nutrient uptake issues, it does not directly address iron deficiency.

✅Explanation: The windward side refers to the direction from which the wind is blowing. This is the side that directly faces the wind.📌Other Options Explanations:○ (b) Leeward: This is the opposite side of the windward side, sheltered from the direct force of the wind.○ (c) Oasis effect: It refers to the creation of a microclimate with increased humidity due to vegetation in arid regions.🛑Additional Information:  Wind can be defined as the flow of gases on a large scale. "Leeward" and "Windward" are technical terms that indicate the direction of the wind. The direction to which wind blow is called as "Leeward". "Windward" is the alternate direction from which wind is coming. The equatorial low-pressure belts region of the earth's surface is called as "Doldrums". Doldrums are the winds within the Intertropical convergence zone. The doldrums lies between approximately 5 degrees north and five degrees south latitude.

✅Explanation: ✅Explanation: A shelterbelt (also known as a windbreak) is designed to reduce the speed and impact of wind. The effectiveness of the shelterbelt on the leeward side typically extends to a range of 6 to 20 times the height of the shelterbelt. This means that the area behind the shelterbelt (on the leeward side) can benefit from wind protection across this distance.6-10 times the height provides partial protection.15-20 times the height offers more significant protection, with wind speeds considerably reduced further from the shelterbelt.The range of effectiveness can vary depending on the type of shelterbelt (such as trees or shrubs), the density of the planting, and the prevailing wind conditions.

✅Explanation: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was established on 16th July 1929. It is one of the most important research organizations in India, dedicated to advancing agricultural research and promoting the development of agricultural practices in the country. ICAR plays a critical role in shaping India's agricultural policies and enhancing food production efficiency.🛑Additional Information:  Former known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. It was registered a society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 in pursue of the Royal Commission on Agriculture. Headquarter of ICAR is New Delhi. It is an autonomous body responsible for coordinating agricultural education and research in India. It reports to the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of Agriculture. It is the largest network of agricultural research and education institutes in the world.

✅Explanation: The Irish Potato Famine occurred between 1845 and 1852, primarily due to a crop failure caused by a fungal disease known as potato blight (Phytophthora infestans). This led to the destruction of the potato crop, which was a staple food for the majority of the Irish population. The famine caused the deaths of approximately one million people and forced another million to emigrate from Ireland, severely impacting the country's population and economy.Important Points The Great Famine, also known as the Irish Potato Famine mostly outside Ireland, was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1849. This began in 1845 when a fungus-like organism called Phytophthora infestans (or P. infestans) spread rapidly throughout Ireland. The infestation ruined up to one-half of the potato crop that year, and about three-quarters of the crop over the next seven years.

✅Explanation: The Bengal Famine of 1943 was primarily caused by a rice shortage, which was exacerbated by several factors:World War II: The Japanese invasion of Burma (Myanmar) in 1942 disrupted the rice supply to Bengal, which was heavily dependent on rice imports from Burma. This led to a sharp reduction in available rice.Crop Failure and Natural Disasters: A series of crop failures, including a reduced rice yield due to unfavorable weather conditions, contributed to the famine.British Policy: British wartime policies, including the diversion of rice supplies for military needs, worsened the food scarcity.🛑Additional Information:  During World War II, the Bengal province of British India (now Bangladesh and eastern India) experienced a famine. An estimated 5 million people died of malnutrition as a result of a lack of food. Famine is the condition of extreme scarcity of food due to many actors like war, ruined crops due to invasive disease, drought, inflation, or population imbalance.  And during the period of 1943, the Bengal province of British India saw the worst famine disaster that leads to starvation and death of millions. Cause of the Famine -  An outbreak of the disease in the crop field oF rice in Bengal lead to the damage of more than 90% of the top, hence caused the disruption in the production of rice. The disease by which the rice fields were infected was Helminthosporium oryzaecausing Rice Brown spot disease.  Brown spot is a fungus that attacks the coleoptile(the protective sheath covering the leaf ), stems, leaf sheath, panicle branches, glumes(outer husk surrounding the grain), and spikelets. The most visible damage is the many large spots on the leaves that can destroy the entire leaf. When a seed becomes infected, it produces unfilled grains or spotted or discolored seeds. once the seed gets infected, the grain production reaches nil. Hence, the rice grains were affected badly and the production of rice reached the bottom level. Innocent lives were lost due to starvation because no food was avaiable. The famine was so disastrous that a mass of the population was wiped out.

✅Explanation: A meteorological drought occurs when there is a prolonged period of below-average rainfall. If this condition persists, it often leads to a hydrological drought. This type of drought is characterized by a deficiency in water supply, such as in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, because the reduced rainfall affects the replenishment of these water bodies.📌Other Options Explanations: b) Soil drought: While soil moisture depletion can occur during droughts, it is typically a precursor or simultaneous effect. d) Physiological drought: This refers to a situation where crops cannot take up water from the soil due to various reasons like high temperature or soil compaction. It can occur during or after a drought, but is not the typical progression following a meteorological drought.🛑Additional Information:  Meteorological drought:o The situation when rainfall is deficient by more than 25% is termed as Meteorological drought.o The prolonged period of lower than average rainfall leads to hydrological droughto It can further lead to hydrological and agricultural drought. Hydrological drought:o When the availability of water in the sources becomes scarce, the situation is termed as hydrological drought.o The groundwater table goes down, the aquifers, lakes and rivers become dry.o It may follow a meteorological drought or can be caused by poor management of water resources.o In such a situation the rate of depletion of water resources exceeds the rate of their replenishment. Agricultural drought:o When the moisture content of soil decreases below the level at which it can support crops the situation is called agricultural drought.o Agricultural drought may result in crop failure and can ultimately lead to famines.

✅Explanation: After rice transplantation, nitrogen fixation in the rhizosphere (root zone) begins roughly 1-2 weeks later. This process is facilitated by rhizobial bacteria and other nitrogen-fixing microorganisms that establish a symbiotic relationship with the roots. Nitrogen fixation becomes particularly important for rice grown in flooded conditions, where the soil has a lower oxygen content, making it conducive for certain anaerobic bacteria that fix nitrogen.This timing aligns with the establishment of root systems that are capable of supporting the microorganisms involved in nitrogen fixation.

✅Explanation: When organic matter is added to soil, it generally increases the water holding capacity of the soil. Organic matter, such as decomposed plant material or compost, improves the soil's structure by enhancing its ability to retain water. It creates small pores in the soil that can hold moisture, which is especially beneficial in sandy soils that tend to drain quickly and in clay soils that can become compacted.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Bulk density: The addition of organic matter generally decreases bulk density because it lightens the soil by increasing pore spaces.b) Thermal conductivity: Organic matter can actually decrease thermal conductivity because it acts as an insulating material, preventing rapid changes in soil temperature.c) Heat capacity: Organic matter can increase heat capacity, but its primary role in terms of water retention is more notable.

✅Explanation: A micro watershed refers to the smallest type of watershed used for agricultural purposes. It typically encompasses a small drainage area, usually less than 100 hectares, and is commonly used for localized water management practices in agriculture. These watersheds are essential in preventing soil erosion, managing water resources effectively, and improving crop yields in small agricultural plots. Watersheds can be further divided into sub-basins based on size. Here's a breakdown of common types: ● Macro Watershed: (> 50,000 hectares)● Sub-watershed: (10,000 to 50,000 hectares)● Milli-watershed: (1,000 to 10,000 hectares)● Micro Watershed: (100 to 1,000 hectares)● Mini Watershed: (< 100 hectares)

✅Explanation: Mulching: This is the most appropriate method during late monsoon onset because it helps conserve soil moisture, regulates temperature, and reduces weed growth. Mulching can also protect the soil from erosion, which is particularly important when rainfall is delayed but can still be erratic.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Ratooning: Ratooning involves allowing a second crop to grow from the stubble of the first crop. It is usually used in crops like rice or sugarcane, but it is more effective when the crop has already been established. c) Thinning: Thinning involves removing excess plants to allow better growth for the remaining ones. While thinning is useful in managing plant density and promoting healthy growth.d) Transplanting: Transplanting is the process of moving seedlings into the field. If the monsoon is delayed, transplanting may not be the most practical solution, as the seedlings might not receive enough water or protection during the establishment phase. Transplanting requires proper timing for the water supply to sustain the plants.🔑Key Points  Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favorable conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. Mulch technical term means 'covering of soil'.o Mulching is a method of using cut leaves, straw, leaf litter, etc. to cover the bare soil while still farming and growing crops on it.o The main objective of mulching is to keep the soil covered while farming it.o Some plants such as maize, cotton, etc are used as ‘mulch’.o Mulch is the protective layer formed by stubble.o Mulches reduce soil moisture evaporation and increase the amount of soil moisture by adding organic matter into the soil.

✅Explanation: Zero tillage: This method involves planting crops directly into undisturbed soil without any prior tillage or plowing. The soil is left undisturbed, which helps preserve soil structure, improve water retention, and reduce soil erosion. This is the most minimal form of soil disturbance.Breakdown of 📌Other Options Explanations: a) Minimum tillage: This method involves reducing the amount of tillage compared to conventional farming practices.  c) Conventional tillage: Conventional tillage involves plowing the soil, which can lead to significant soil disturbance. This method is typically used for preparing the soil to plant seeds. d) Strip tillage: Strip tillage involves tilling narrow strips of soil where crops will be planted while leaving the rest of the soil undisturbed. 🔑Key Points  'Zero tillage system' was first used successfully in 1950 in pasture renovation in the USA. Zero tillage is the system where the crop seed is sown through drillers without prior land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are present. Tillage systems influence the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil and have a major impact on soil productivity and sustainability. Zero tillage has a positive effect on members of Rhizobiales and crop residue retention increases. The bacterial communities under zero tillage and crop residue retention have the highest level of diversity and richness.

✅Explanation: Histosol: Histosols are organic soils, often found in wetlands or poorly drained areas, that contain high amounts of organic matter. These soils are typically waterlogged, and when drained for reclamation purposes, they can undergo oxidation, releasing toxic compounds like hydrogen sulfide and causing "reclamation disease." This disease can harm crops due to the sudden changes in soil structure and the release of harmful substances.📌Other Options Explanations:b) Mollisol: Mollisols are fertile, dark soils found in grasslands. They are rich in organic matter and are generally considered highly productive.c) Oxisol: Oxisols are highly weathered soils found in tropical regions. They are characterized by low fertility and are often acidic. d) Spodosol: Spodosols are acidic, nutrient-poor soils found in cool, humid regions.Important 🔑Key Points  Reclamation disease occurs in rice plants and it affects photosynthesis and respiration, reduced pollen viability. It is caused due to Copper (Cu) deficiency. Reclamation disease occurs mainly in Histosols, organic material rich soil. (>20% organic matter) Also known as peat or muck soil usually acidic with low bulk density and poorly drained because organic matter holds water very well. These are very important ecologically, because histosols and gelisols store large quantities of organic carbon.🛑Additional Information: Alfisols forms in semi arid to humid areas and used in agriculture and forestry. Alfisols have clay-enriched subsoil and relatively high native fertility. These soils are deficient in nitrogen and available phosphorus. Found mostly in laterite and red soil. Aridosols or desert soil form in arid or semi-arid climate. These have very low concentration of organic matter. Water deficiency is the major characteristic. Accumulation of salts on the surface can result in salinization.

✅Explanation: Adventitious roots: These roots grow from non-root tissues, such as stems or leaves. In many plants, adventitious roots can develop from deeper layers of the plant, allowing them to penetrate deeper into the soil to access water and nutrients. These roots are especially important for plants in deep, well-drained soils where they need to reach the groundwater or deeper nutrients.Breakdown of 📌Other Options Explanations:a) Seminal roots: Seminal roots are the first set of roots that emerge from the seed during germination. They are typically shallow.b) Crown/coronal roots: These roots develop from the base or crown of the plant. While they help anchor the plant and take up nutrients.c) Brace/prop roots: These roots are specialized for supporting the plant, typically seen in plants like corn or rice. They grow from the lower stem and help provide structural stability.🛑Additional Information: Types of root:Taproot: The taproot develops from the radicle of embryo of a seed. The first root formed by the elongation of radicle is called primary root. It continuously grows and produces lateral roots called secondary roots. These types of roots are present in dicots, e.g., carrot, pea, gram, groundnut, etc.Adventitious root: The roots developing from any part of the plant other than the radicle are known as adventitious roots. These are usually found in monocots, e.g., Sweet potato, wheat, onion, etc.Prop root: The prop roots grow as the horizontal branches of the stem and grow vertically downward. They become thick pillar-like and provide mechanical support to the giant trees e.g., banyan treeStilt root: These are small, thick supporting roots growing obliquely from the basal nodes of the main stem. They provide mechanical support, e.g., sugarcane, maize, etc.

✅Explanation: Jointing: This stage is characterized by rapid stem elongation. It occurs after the tillering stage and before heading. During jointing, the rice plant starts to elongate its stem significantly, preparing to support the developing panicle (flowering structure). This is the phase when the plant's stem length increases most quickly.📌Other Options Explanations: a) Booting: The booting stage occurs just before heading when the panicle is fully developed inside the flag leaf sheath.  b) Tillering: The tillering stage involves the development of lateral shoots or tillers.  d) Heading: The heading stage occurs when the panicle emerges from the flag leaf sheath. 🛑Additional Information: The rice growth stages can be broadly categorized as:1. Germination: Seedling emergence.2. Tillering: Development of new shoots from the base of the plant.3. Internode elongation (jointing): Rapid stem growth, where the internodes (stem segments between nodes) lengthen significantly.4. Booting: Formation of the boot (protective sheath) around the developing panicle (flower head).5. Heading: Emergence of the panicle from the boot.6. Maturity: Grain filling and ripening.7. Jointing stage: This is the period of most rapid stem elongation in rice. The internodes lengthen, and the plant increases its height.

✅Explanation:  Net Assimilation Rate (NAR) measures the rate at which plants assimilate carbon per unit of leaf area per day. It is a key indicator of a plant's photosynthetic efficiency and is used to quantify the increase in dry mass in relation to leaf area. The unit g/m² of leaf area/day reflects the amount of biomass produced by photosynthesis per square meter of leaf area per day.

✅Explanation: Numerical weather prediction (NWP) is the primary method used for medium-range weather forecasting. It relies on complex mathematical models of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surfaces to predict weather patterns. These models use current weather data (such as temperature, pressure, and wind patterns) to simulate and forecast weather conditions for the next 7-15 days. NWP is highly effective for medium-range forecasting because it takes into account a wide range of variables and their interactions.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Synoptic method: The synoptic method involves analyzing weather patterns based on surface maps and atmospheric data, usually for short-term forecasting (a few hours to a few days). c) Statistical method: The statistical method uses historical weather data and trends to predict future weather patterns. It is more commonly applied for long-range forecasts or to complement other methods, rather than for medium-range forecasting.

✅Explanation: Arhar (Pigeon pea): Arhar is known to have a relatively high phosphorus content, including phosphoric acid, compared to other pulse crops. Phosphorus is essential for plant growth, particularly for energy transfer and root development, and Arhar is recognized for its relatively high levels of this nutrient.

✅Explanation: Short day: Potato plants generally require shorter days (longer nights) to initiate tuberization, which is the process of forming the underground storage organs (tubers). This is a photoperiod-sensitive process, and tuber formation typically begins when the plant experiences a period of shorter daylight hours, typically in late summer or early fall.

✅Explanation: Class II land is characterized by land that is suitable for most crops with moderate limitations, such as the presence of mild erosion risks or limitations due to soil fertility or drainage. These limitations can usually be managed with good farming practices, making it generally good land for agriculture.🛑Additional Information: In the Land Capability Classification System, colors are used to denote different land classes based on suitability for agriculture:● Class I (Green): Land with few limitations, suitable for intensive cultivation.● Class II (Yellow): Land with moderate limitations, requires conservation practices.● Class III (Red): Land with severe limitations, suitable for restricted cultivation.● Class IV (Blue): Land with very severe limitations, mainly suitable for grazing or forestry.Important Points Land capability classification (LCC) can be defined as a system of grouping land into various classes based on inherent limitations imposed on sustained use by soil attributes, topography, drainage and climate. The guiding principle underlying LCC is to “use land according to its capability and treat it as per its need”. The capability classes fall into two groups, one suited for cultivation and the other not suited for cultivation. Each group is further subdivided into four capabilities based on the intensity of hazards and limitations of use. The subclasses are further divided into a unit based on specific management practice. Thus the land is classified into eight land capability classes under two broad groups:1. Land suitable for agriculture and other uses which include class I to class IV lands.2. Land not suitable for agriculture but very well suited for forestry, grassland and wildlife which include class V to class VIII lands. Here is the arrangement of the LCC (Land Capability Classification) characteristics in bullet points:Class 1: Very good cultivation, deep, nearly level productive land with almost no limitation or very slight hazard. Soils in this class are suited for a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, cotton, maize, tomato, and bean. Needs no special practices for cultivation.Class 2: Cultivable land on almost level plain or on gentle slopes, moderate depth, subject to occasional overland flow, may require drainage. Moderate risk of damage when cultivated. Crop rotations, water control systems, or special tillage practices are required to control erosion.Class 3: Soils are of moderate fertility on moderately steep slopes, subject to more severe erosion and a severe risk of damage. Can be used for crops, provided adequate plant cover is maintained. Hay or other sod crops should be grown instead of row crops.Class 4: Good soils on steep slopes, subject to severe erosion, with severe risk of damage. Can be cultivated occasionally if handled with great care.Class 5: The land is too wet or stony, making it unsuitable for the cultivation of crops, subject to only slight erosion. If properly managed, should be used for pasture or forestry, but grazing should be regulated to prevent the cover from being destroyed.Class 6: Shallow soils on steep slopes, used for grazing and forestry. Grazing should be regulated to preserve plant cover. If the plant cover is destroyed, use should be restricted until the cover is re-established.Class 7: Steep, rough, eroded lands with shallow soils, including drought and swampy land, with severe risk of damage even when used for pasture or forestry. Strict grazing or forest management must be applied.Class 8: Very rough land, not suitable even for woodland or grazing. Reserved for wildlife, recreation, or wasteland consideration.

✅Explanation: Moong bean: Among the listed options, Moong bean (green gram) typically fixes the least amount of nitrogen compared to the other legumes. While it still fixes nitrogen, its efficiency in doing so is lower compared to other legumes like alfalfa or soybean.📌Other Options Explanations:(b) Lucerne (alfalfa): Lucerne, or alfalfa, is a highly efficient nitrogen-fixing legume. It is one of the best nitrogen-fixing plants, and it can fix a substantial amount of nitrogen through its extensive root system and symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.(c) Soybean: Soybeans are also very effective nitrogen fixers. They have a well-developed root system and symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, contributing significantly to soil nitrogen levels.(d) Groundnut: Groundnut (peanut) is a fairly efficient nitrogen fixer as well. 🔑Key Points  Nitrogen fixation is the essential biological process and the initial stage of the nitrogen cycle. In this process, nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia (another form of nitrogen) by certain bacterial species like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, etc., and by other natural phenomena. Nitrogen-fixing plants are those that have roots colonized by specific kinds of bacteria with the ability to extract nitrogen from the air and convert it to a usable form of nitrogen that can be used to help them grow. Nitrogen-fixing plants contribute an essential plant nutrient that’s necessary for healthy fruit and foliage production. Alfalfa should also be dubbed the “King of Nitrogen Fixation” because it makes more residual nitrogen available to subsequent crops than any other legume you can grow. Chickpea plays a significant role in improving soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Red Clover ( Trifolium Pratense) is a nitrogen-fixing perennial plant that produces showy red, purple, or pink flowers in late spring or summer. Hence Option 1 is correct.

✅Explanation: Striga: Striga, commonly known as witchweed, is a parasitic plant that affects crops like maize, millet, and sorghum. The push-pull strategy is an integrated pest management technique that involves using two different types of plants: one plant "pushes" pests away, and the other "pulls" pests away from the crop. In the case of Striga, a combination of trap crops (that attract Striga) and repellent crops (that discourage Striga) is used to manage the infestation.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Cuscuta (dodder): Cuscuta is a parasitic plant that wraps around host plants and feeds on them. b) Orobanche (broomrape): Orobanche is another parasitic plant that affects crops like legumes and sunflowers. c) Loranthus (mistletoe): Mistletoe is a parasitic plant that affects trees.

✅Explanation: The Indian Society of Agronomy (ISA) is a professional society in India dedicated to the advancement of agronomy, the science and technology of crop production. It was established in 1955.

✅Explanation: Rocket salad (also known as arugula) is a leafy green vegetable commonly used in salads. It has a peppery flavor and is often consumed raw. As a leafy green, it falls under the category of vegetable crops.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Oilseed crop: Oilseed crops are those grown primarily for oil extraction (e.g., sunflower, soybean, canola). b) Pulse crop: Pulse crops are legumes grown for their dry seeds, such as lentils, chickpeas, and peas. d) Sugar crop: Sugar crops are those cultivated primarily for sugar extraction, such as sugarcane or sugar beet.

✅Explanation: FCI (Food Corporation of India): The Food Corporation of India is the primary agency responsible for the procurement, storage, and distribution of food grains (like rice and wheat) under the government's food security programs. FCI maintains buffer stocks to ensure food availability during times of shortage and to support government schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS). 📌Other Options Explanations:a) NSC (National Seeds Corporation): The NSC is responsible for the production and distribution of quality seeds\.c) IGSI (Indian Grain Storage Institute): IGSI focuses on training and providing expertise in grain storage. 🛑Additional Information:  FCI is headquartered in New Delhi. On March 24th 2017, the Central government approved the construction of one crore tonne capacity silos for the storage of foodgrains by the end of the year 2019-20. It will be constructed by FCI. A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store grain (see grain elevators) or fermented feed known as silage.

✅Explanation: Saltation: Saltation refers to the process where soil particles are lifted into the air by the wind and then fall back to the surface, bouncing along the ground. This process causes the majority of soil loss during wind erosion because it involves the movement of many particles over a distance, leading to significant soil displacement.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Surface creep: Surface creep involves larger soil particles rolling or sliding along the ground. c) Suspension: Suspension involves very fine particles being lifted high into the air and carried over long distances. d) Scrapping: Scraping refers to the physical disturbance of soil by wind.Important Points The wind is responsible for three types of soil movement in the process of wind erosion. They are known as:​1. ​Saltation2. Suspension3. Surface creep

✅Explanation: LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application) is a more efficient and water-saving modification of the sprinkler irrigation system. It uses low-pressure, low-energy systems to apply water more precisely to the crops, reducing water wastage. The water is applied directly to the plant root zone, and the system is designed to work efficiently with minimal energy consumption.Breakdown of 📌Other Options Explanations:a) Drip irrigation: Drip irrigation applies water directly to the root zone of plants through small emitters. Drip irrigation is a different technology that operates at much lower pressures.c) Surface irrigation: Surface irrigation involves the flow of water over the soil surface to irrigate crops. d) Sub-surface irrigation: Sub-surface irrigation involves placing irrigation pipes beneath the soil surface, delivering water directly to the plant roots.

✅Explanation: SRI (System of Rice Intensification) is known to be labor-intensive due to the various practices involved, such as the need for careful transplanting of young seedlings, precise water management, and continuous weeding. These tasks require more labor compared to conventional rice cultivation methods.📌Other Options Explanations:(a) Wide row spacing: SRI typically involves wide row spacing, which helps improve root growth and aeration.(b) Irrigation when hairline cracks appear: SRI promotes intermittent irrigation, where fields are allowed to dry and then irrigated again when hairline cracks appear on the soil surface. This helps conserve water while encouraging better root development.(d) Low seed rate: SRI uses a much lower seed rate compared to conventional methods, with fewer seedlings planted per unit area.🔑Key Points  System of Rice Intensification (SRI)o It was first developed in Madagascar in the 1980s and since then several countries in the world have been practicing it, including India.o It promises to save 15 to 20% groundwater and improves rice productivity, which is almost at a stagnant point now. o As SRI reduces water requirements, electricity consumption for irrigation also reduces. o It gives equal to or more productivity than conventional rice cultivation, with less water, less seed, and fewer chemicals. The net effect is a substantial reduction in the investments in external inputs.Important Points Benefits and Impacts of System of Rice Intensification o To increase paddy yields usually by 20-50% and sometimes 100% or more; o To reduce the required seeds for transplanting by 60-80%; o To reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and agrichemicals; o To reduce irrigation water by 25-50%; o To reduce production costs usually by 10-20%; ando With increased output and reduced costs, farmers’ net income is increased.o The management methods of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), by creating aerobic soil conditions through shallow and intermittent irrigation or alternate wetting and drying (AWD), bring about mostly aerobic soil conditions that sharply reduce methane emissions. o Research has shown that intermittent paddy irrigation by SRI or AWD reduced methane emissions by between 22% and 64%.

✅Explanation: Kaolin: Kaolin is a type of clay that is often used as a reflecting-type anti-transpirant. It forms a physical barrier on the surface of plant leaves, reflecting sunlight and reducing the amount of water lost through transpiration. This helps the plant conserve water, especially in hot and dry conditions.📌Other Options Explanations: (a) PMA (Plasmid Mediated Anti-transpirant): PMA is a biochemical substance used to reduce transpiration by affecting the plant's physiological processes. (b) Atrazine: Atrazine is a herbicide used to control weeds. 🛑Additional Information:Anti-transpirants are substances used to reduce the transpiration from plant surfaces.They reduce photosynthesis so it is used in limited conditions.It is mainly used in nurseries and Horticultural crops.There are four types of Anti-transpirantsStomatal closing type: They reduce the water loss by closing the stomata.Examples: Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA @ 10-4), Atrazine, and CO2Film-forming: Check transpirational loss due to the formation of thin-film which acts as a physical barrier.Examples: Mobileaf, Hexadecanol, Silicone, oils, and waxes.Reflecting type: These chemicals reflect the radiation and reduce the temperature.Examples: Kaolin @ 5%Growth retardants: These chemicals reduce the shoot growth and increases the root growth and enable to resist drought.Example: Cycocel (CCC)

✅Explanation: Stubble mulching involves leaving crop residues or plant material on the soil surface after harvesting. This practice helps protect the soil from erosion, improves soil moisture retention, and maintains the loosened structure created by chiseling. It also prevents the soil from compacting and helps preserve the soil structure over time.📌Other Options Explanations:(b) Zero tillage: Zero tillage involves not tilling the soil at all, which can help conserve moisture and prevent erosion.(c) Intercultivation: Intercultivation refers to the practice of cultivating the soil between rows of crops to control weeds and improve soil aeration. 🔑Key Points  Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favorable conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. Mulch technical term means 'covering of soil'.o Mulching is a method of using cut leaves, straw, leaf litter, etc. to cover the bare soil while still farming and growing crops on it.o The main objective of mulching is to keep the soil covered while farming it.o Some plants such as maize, cotton, etc are used as ‘mulch’.o Mulch is the protective layer formed by stubble.o Mulches reduce soil moisture evaporation and increase the amount of soil moisture by adding organic matter into the soil.

✅Explanation: Pictogram: A pictogram uses pictures or icons to represent numerical data. Each picture or symbol represents a specific quantity, making it easier to visualize the data in a more intuitive way. For example, each picture of a tree might represent 100 trees, or each person icon might represent 10 people.Breakdown of 📌Other Options Explanations:(a) Pie chart: A pie chart represents data as slices of a circle, where each slice's size is proportional to the value it represents. (b) Histogram: A histogram uses bars to represent the frequency of data within certain ranges or intervals.(d) Bar diagram: A bar diagram uses rectangular bars to represent data values, with the length of each bar corresponding to the value.

✅Explanation: Friend and Dean provided values used in the assessment of Phosphorus (P) and Sulfur (S) in soil. Their work relates to determining the availability and status of these nutrients in the soil to assess soil fertility.

✅Explanation: Almix is a herbicide formulation that combines Metsulfuron methyl and Chlorimuron ethyl, both of which are selective herbicides used primarily for broadleaf weed control in crops like soybean. This mixture is effective in controlling a wide range of weeds in post-emergence stages.

✅Explanation: Deep sowing helps in reducing the risk of Fusarium wilt, a soil-borne disease. Sowing the seeds at a depth of 5-7 cm helps ensure that the seedlings are less exposed to the pathogens present in the upper soil layers, where Fusarium spores are typically concentrated.Deeper sowing can encourage better root development and may help the plant avoid infection from surface-dwelling pathogens.

✅Explanation: Napier grass is typically planted using rooted slips or cuttings. The recommended planting density is about 27,800 slips per hectare, which provides an optimal spacing to ensure good growth and yield.The exact number may vary based on planting practices, but 27,800 slips per hectare is a common guideline used for Napier grass.

✅Explanation: Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (FACE) is a technology used in environmental research to study the effects of increased carbon dioxide (CO₂) on plant growth and ecosystems. This method involves exposing plants to elevated CO₂ levels in open-air environments, without enclosing them in chambers, which helps simulate real-world conditions of climate change.

✅Explanation: MB plough (Mulch tiller plough) is a multipurpose plough because it is designed to handle various tasks such as tilling, turning the soil, and managing mulch. It is effective for both primary tillage (turning the soil) and secondary tillage (creating a seedbed) and can be used for a range of soil types and conditions.Main Components:Plough Bottom:This is the crucial part that directly interacts with the soil. It consists of: Share: The sharp, pointed part that cuts and penetrates the soil horizontally.Mouldboard: The curved surface that lifts, turns, and inverts the furrow slice.Landside: The flat plate that provides stability and helps maintain the plough's depth and direction.Frog: The main structural part to which the share, mouldboard, and landside are attached.Beam:The long, sturdy metal bar that connects the plough bottom to the frame or hitch.Frame:The main supporting structure of the plough, usually made of steel. It holds the beam and other components together.Hitch:The part that attaches the plough to the tractor or animal power source.📌Other Options Explanations:a) Disc plough: A disc plough is used for plowing hard or dry soil. It is more specialized for cutting through tough, compacted soil.c) Traditional wooden plough: A traditional wooden plough is a simple, manual tool often used for tilling.d) Ridge plough: A ridge plough is used to form ridges in the soil, mainly for crops that benefit from ridged rows, 🔑Key Points Tillage: It is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for obtaining conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment, and growth of the crop.Objectives of tillage: To create conditions in the soil suited for better growth of crops. To control weeds effectively. To make the soil capable of absorbing more rainwater. To mix up manure and fertilizers effectively in the soil. Providing adequate seed-soil contact permit water flow to seed and seedling roots.Primary tillage: The operations are performed to open up any cultivable land to prepare a seedbed for growing crops known as primary tillage. Animal-drawn implements in primary tillage mostly include MB-plough. Tractor-drawn implements include MB-plough, disc plough, subsoil plough, chisel plough, and other similar implements.Secondary tillage Lighter or finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage is known as secondary tillage. Harrowing is to be done to a shallow depth to crush the clods and to uproot the remaining weeds and stubbles. Seedbed preparation and intercultural operations are done up to a depth of 15 cm. Secondary tillage implements: Disc harrow, spike tooth harrow, spring tooth harrow, acme harrow, etc.

✅Explanation: Robert Chambers introduced the Farmer's First Concept, emphasizing the importance of involving farmers in the development of agricultural practices and technologies. The concept advocates for a bottom-up approach, where farmers' knowledge, experiences, and needs are central to the research and development process in agriculture.

✅Explanation: Drip irrigation is known for its high uniformity coefficient because it delivers water directly to the plant roots in a precise and controlled manner. This method minimizes water loss due to evaporation or runoff and ensures that each plant receives the correct amount of water, leading to a high degree of uniformity in water distribution across the field.📌Other Options Explanations:(b) Sprinkler irrigation: While sprinkler irrigation can achieve relatively good uniformity, it is more prone to uneven water distribution, especially in windy conditions. (c) Check basin flood irrigation: This method is prone to significant variability in water distribution due to its reliance on gravity and field slopes. It usually has a lower uniformity coefficient compared to drip irrigation.🛑Additional Information: Drip irrigationIt is also called trickle irrigation is used in areas with water scarcity and salt problems.It involves the slow application of water, drop by drop to the root zone of a crop, water seeps from these holes drop by drop, hence the name drip irrigation.Water-saving 50-70% as compared to surface irrigation.The difference in water delivery rate between extreme emitters should not exceed 10%Water discharge rate is generally 1-4 lit/hr. at 1.5-2.5 kg/cm2 pressure.The water use efficiency of drip irrigation is 95%Most suitable for widely spaced crops, orchards trees, and greenhouses.Advantage of drip irrigation:​​Increased water use efficiencyHigh crop yieldUniform and better quality of the produceEfficient and economic use or fertilizer through fertigationLess weed growthMinimum damage to the soil structure and reduction in soil erosionUsage in undulating areas and slowly permeable soilLow energy requirement i.e. labor-saving

✅Explanation: Köppen & Geiger developed the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, which is one of the most widely used systems for classifying climates. This system is based on temperature, precipitation, and seasonal variations—key weather elements. It categorizes the world's climates into various types such as tropical, dry, temperate, and polar, based on these weather factors. 🔑Key Points Koppen's world climatic classification: The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by the German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1900 based on the major vegetation zone suggested by Candolle in1874. There are several modifications of this scheme by Köppen, notably in 1918,1931 and 1936. Later, the climatologist Rudolf Geiger introduced some changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger-Pohi’s climate classification system published in 1953. Cwg Climateo This type of climate is found in most parts of the Northern Ganga Plains.o In this type of climate, the summer temperature rises to 40°C which falls to 27°C in winter. Most of the rainfall occurs in summer and winter is dry.o Cwg type climate is also known as 'Monsoon type with dry winters' type climate.🛑Additional Information: Koppen divided India into nine climatic regionso Amw - Monsoon type with the short dry winter season.o As - Monsoon type with the dry season in high sun periodo Aw - Tropical Savanah typeo BShw - Semi-arid steppe typeo BWhw - Hot desert typeo Cwg - Monsoon type with dry winterso Dfc - Cold, Humid winters type with shorter summero Et - Tundra typeo E - Polar type

✅Explanation: Mannulal Mandal (Randhawa) wrote a history of agriculture in India, covering the evolution and development of agricultural practices in the country over time. His work provides detailed insights into the agricultural history, techniques, and policies in India.

✅Explanation: For hybrid rice varieties, the typical seed rate is around 15 kg per hectare. Hybrid rice seeds are generally more efficient and have better germination rates compared to traditional varieties, so the seed rate is lower.Hybrid rice varieties generally have lower seed rates compared to traditional varieties. This is because:● Hybrid seeds are often more vigorous: They can produce more tillers (shoots) per plant, even with a lower seeding density.● Higher seed costs: Hybrid seeds can be more expensive than traditional varieties, so using a lower seed rate reduces overall seeding costs.However, the exact recommended seed rate can vary depending on factors like:● Specific hybrid variety characteristics● Planting method (e.g., transplanting vs. direct seeding)● Soil fertility and growing conditions

✅Explanation: Biofortification is the process of increasing the nutrient content of crops through agronomic practices, without the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). One of the common methods to achieve biofortification is by applying microfertilizers at appropriate rates to enhance the absorption of essential nutrients like zinc, iron, and vitamins in the crops.🛑Additional Information:  Biofortification is a process in which crops are bred to increase their nutritional content. There are different methods to do biofortification such as conventional methods of breeding or genetic engineering.✅Explanation:  There are different objectives of Biofortification. It increases the mineral and micronutrient content of the food crops. For example, wheat is rich in zinc. These food crops are cost-effective and meet the needs of the poor. It improves the protein and vitamin content of food. For example, Golden rice is rich in vitamin A. Other examples are the biofortification of rice, beans, etc for iron. But biofortification does not make or improve the crop resistance to different diseases.

✅Explanation: ● Seed index: This is a measure of seed size and weight, typically expressed as the average dry weight of 100 seeds. It's a useful indicator for crop establishment, seed quality, and potential yield.● 📌Other Options Explanations:○ (a) Test weight: This refers to the weight of a specific volume of grain or seeds, often used for assessing grain quality after harvest.○ (b) Sink weight: This might be relevant in seed quality testing, but it refers to the weight of seeds that sink in a specific solution.○ (d) Seed rate: This is the amount of seed used for planting a specific area, s.

✅Explanation: The base temperature for maize (corn) is the minimum temperature at which the plant begins to grow and develop. For maize, this temperature is generally considered to be around 10°C. Below this temperature, maize growth is very slow or may not occur.

✅Explanation: Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) belongs to the family Pontederiaceae. This family includes aquatic plants, and water hyacinth is one of the most well-known members due to its rapid growth and impact on water bodies.📌Other Options Explanations:(a) Asteraceae: This family includes daisies, sunflowers, and asters.(b) Poaceae: This is the grass family.(d) Convolvulaceae: This family includes morning glories and sweet potatoes🔑Key Points : Pontederia crassipes (formerly Eichhornia crassipes), popularly referred to as water hyacinth or the "Terror of Bengal," is an aquatic plant. This is because it reduces the amount of sunshine and dissolved oxygen available to fish and other aquatic animals, which stunts their ability to grow. A free-floating aquatic or hydrophytic plant, water hyacinth is indigenous to tropical and subtropical South America. Bengal received water hyacinth from India in 1884 because to its lovely blossoms and interesting leaf shapes, but it soon became an invasive weed that drained oxygen from the water bodies and decimated the fish population.

✅Explanation: Sorghum halepense, commonly known as Johnson grass, is classified as a summer perennial. It grows actively during the summer and can persist for several years, typically reproducing by rhizomes and seeds.Other options (a) Canada thistle: This is a cool-season perennial, meaning it thrives in spring and fall. (c) Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass): Johnsongrass is generally considered a weed. (d) Argemone mexicana (Prickly poppy): This can be an annual or short-lived perennial depending on the climate.🛑Additional Information: Perennial weeds: these are the weeds that complete their life cycle in more than two years. Other examples for perennial weed:  Shallow rooted: Cynodon, Agropyron Deep-rooted: Cyprus rotundus, Sorghum helpens

✅Explanation: Blind cultivation is a practice where crops like sugarcane and potato are planted without direct visibility of the planting material. This technique involves burying the seed material (like sugarcane setts or potato tubers) below the soil surface to protect them from pests, improve growth conditions, and conserve moisture. It is used in both sugarcane and potato cultivation.

✅Explanation: A rough seedbed is typically ideal for crops like pigeon pea (Arahar), which has deep roots and benefits from a slightly rough surface for better root penetration and moisture retention. Pigeon pea is well-suited to a seedbed that is not too finely prepared, as it allows for better establishment of roots in deeper soil.● 📌Other Options Explanations: (a) Greengram: Greengram (mung bean) typically requires a smoother, more level seedbed for better seed-to-soil contact and uniform germination. (b) Gram (chickpea): Chickpea generally benefits from a well-prepared, firm seedbed to prevent waterlogging and ensure better seed placement. (c) Blackgram: Like greengram, blackgram also prefers a finer seedbed for proper germination and establishment.

✅Explanation: The desired permeability of shelterbelts (a row of trees or shrubs planted to protect crops from wind) typically falls in the range of 32-35%. This permeability allows shelterbelts to effectively reduce wind speed while still allowing enough airflow to prevent excessive humidity or damage to the plants.Important 🔑Key Points Shelterbelts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover Shelterbelts are rows of trees, usually along fence lines. They are planted mainly to protect animals or crops from cold winds, but also to give shade in hot weather. In regions such as Canterbury where there is a lot of cultivated land, shelterbelts also reduce wind erosion. Shelter belts are a series of trees or shrubs that are grown in a form of the horizontal line adjacent to the field. A series of trees planted to grow in the edges of a field in order to protect the fields from high-speed winds.

✅Explanation: ● Chasmophytes are plants that grow in the cracks or crevices of rocks. These plants are well-adapted to survive in environments with limited soil and water, often thriving in rocky or mountainous regions.● 📌Other Options Explanations:○ (a) Lithophytes: These are rock-dwelling plants but not necessarily restricted to cracks and crevices. They can also grow on rock surfaces.○ (c) Cryophytes: These are cold-adapted plants and not specific to growing on rocks.○ (d) Petrophytes: This term is less commonly used compared to lithophytes for rock-dwelling plants.🔑Key Points  Lithophytes:o ​Lithophytes plants that grow on stones and rocks or in their crevices.o Examples of lithophytes include Paphiopedilum orchids, ferns, many algae, and liverworts. Halophytes:o ​Halophytes are plants that grow in saltwater.o Stems and leaves of coastal aero halophytes show additional modes of adaptation to their habitats, known as the Pneumatophore. o Their surfaces are densely covered with trichomes.o The most common example of this is Mangroves which are quite ubiquitous across India’s coastal lines.o Moreover, it’s one of the types of Mangroves named Sundari, after which the forest of Sundarbans are based upon. Aerophytes:o Aerial in habitat i.e found on the trunk of trees, animals, etc. Psammophytes:o ​Plants that grow on sandy soil. Eg. Haloxylon persicum, Eremosparton.

✅Explanation: In sugarcane, parenchymatous cells are responsible for storing sugar, particularly in the stem. These cells have thin walls and large intercellular spaces, allowing them to store and transport sugars, primarily sucrose, which is stored in the form of sap in the parenchyma tissue of the sugarcane stalk.📌Other Options Explanations: (b) Sclerenchyma cells: These cells provide structural support to the plant. They have thick, lignified walls. (c) Meristematic cells: These cells are responsible for growth and cell division. (d) Vascular bundles: Vascular bundles are involved in the transport of water, nutrients.

✅Explanation: Jethro Tull is widely regarded as the father of conservation tillage. He is credited with developing and promoting techniques like seed drilling and horse-drawn hoeing, which helped reduce soil erosion.🛑Additional Information:  Seed drillo ​The seed drill was invented by Jethro Tull in 1701.o Jethro Tull was an agricultural pioneer.o The seed drill is the first agricultural machine with moving parts.

Explanation Lentil is known to contain raffinose, a type of oligosaccharide that is classified as an anti-quality constituent. Raffinose is a complex sugar that can cause digestive discomfort in humans and animals, such as gas and bloating, because it is not easily digested and is fermented by bacteria in the gut.🛑Additional Information:  Raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) are widespread across the plant kingdom. Their concentrations are influenced by:EnvironmentGenotypeHarvest time Functions of RFOs:Beneficial properties for plants and humansIn plants, RFOs contribute to:Heat toleranceDrought resistanceCold resistanceSalinity toleranceDisease resistanceRegulation of seed germination, vigor, and longevity Anti-nutritional properties:RFOs cause flatulence in humans and animals, which is the primary factor deterring consumption of legumes in diets.

✅Explanation: Balu rice is a type of rice belonging to the Javanica subspecies of Oryza sativa (Asian rice). Javanica rice varieties are known for their broad, stiff leaves, low tillering, and tall plant stature compared to Indica and Japonica varieties.

✅Explanation: Gleying is a soil condition that occurs in waterlogged or poorly drained soils, where oxygen is limited, leading to the reduction of iron and other compounds, giving the soil a blue-gray appearance. Rice is most likely to experience gleying because it is typically grown in flooded conditions (paddy fields), which create an anaerobic (low oxygen) environment conducive to gleying.

✅Explanation: Avoidance is a plant adaptation to tolerate drought by minimizing water loss. This adaptation includes strategies such as developing mechanisms to close stomata, reducing transpiration, or having deep root systems that access water from deeper soil layers. Drought-avoidant plants may also complete their life cycle quickly during favorable conditions to avoid drought stress.📌Other Options Explanations:(b) Escaping: While "escaping" refers to plants completing their life cycle quickly during unfavorable conditions (like drought).(c) Mesomorphic: This term refers to plants that live in moderate environments.

✅Explanation: Nomadic farming is a system where families move with their herds and do not have a fixed location or permanent cultivation. This type of farming involves the movement of livestock and the use of natural resources in different locations, often depending on the availability of pasture.📌Other Options Explanations:(b) Integrated farming system: This is a farming system where different agricultural activities, such as crop cultivation, livestock rearing, and agroforestry, are integrated into a single system for mutual benefits.(c) Ecological farming: This farming system focuses on sustainable practices that are environmentally friendly.(d) Organic farming: This system uses organic methods for crop production, such as avoiding synthetic chemicals.Important PointsShifting cultivation and nomadic herding are two types of primitive subsistence farming. Both types of farming are done temporarily. Indigenous communities prefer to carry out this type of farming system. Shifting cultivation is fixed to a limited area and they come back to the same area after a fixed time(after the fertility of soil is renewed) Nomadic herding includes a group of people along with animals who travel to different places for cultivation.🛑Additional Information: Nomads live in arid and semiarid parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe, and in the tundra regions of Asia and Europe. In Africa, nomads herd cattle, goats, sheep, and camels. In the tundra, they usually herd domesticated reindeer. Other animals managed by nomadic herders include horses, musk-oxen, and yaks. Subsistence farming, extensive farming and arable farming are examples of Shifting agriculture.

✅Explanation: Integrated Farming System (IFS) refers to the combination of various agricultural activities, such as crop production, livestock rearing, agroforestry (forests), and fisheries, with a focus on soil and water conservation. This system aims to optimize the use of available resources and improve sustainability by integrating different farming practices in a complementary manner.Breakdown of 📌Other Options Explanations:(a) Zabo cultivation: This is a traditional system of farming practiced in some parts of India, particularly in Nagaland. It combines agriculture with water harvesting .(b) Agri-silviculture: This refers to the combination of agriculture and forestry practices.(c) Agri-silviculture-pasture: This is a more specific combination of agriculture, forestry, and pasture management, but it lacks the inclusion of fisheries and a comprehensive focus on soil and water conservation.🛑Additional Information: The advantage of an Integrated farming system involves decrease farm input requirements.An integrated farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural production which aims at preserving environmental quality and to meet many requirements of farm households.Some of the benefits of IFS are:IFS improves soil fertility and health.Reduction in production costs decreases farm input requirements, minimize the use of chemical fertilizer, enhanced employment generation, and pollution-free environment.The integrated farming system is a commonly used term to explain a more integrated approach to farming compared to monoculture approaches.It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop production or integrate fish and livestock and may sometimes be known as integrated biosystems.In this system, an inter-related set of enterprises is used so that the "waste" from one component becomes an input for another part of the system. This reduces costs and improves production and/or income.Since it utilizes waste as a resource, farmers not only eliminate waste but they also ensure an overall increase in productivity for the whole farming system.Few other benefits of Integrated Farming System are:-Promotion of Agro-Industry.Increased Input Efficiency.Cost Minimization for Input Use.Increased Employment.Fodder Security for Livestock.Recycling.Continuous Income Round the Year.Energy Saving.

✅Explanation: Pitcher farming is a practice in dry farming where crops are irrigated through small holes made in the bottom of earthen pitchers. The pitchers, when buried in the soil near the plant roots, release water slowly over time, helping to irrigate the crops in dry conditions. This method is commonly used in areas with water scarcity.📌Other Options Explanations:(c) Escaping drought: This refers to a crop strategy where the crop completes its life cycle quickly to avoid drought stress.(d) Drought tolerant: This refers to crops that are naturally resistant to drought conditions.🔑Key Points  Dry agriculture is the cultivation done in dry and semi-dry areas where the average annual rainfall is about 75 cm. Dryland farming or rainfed farming is the technique of doing agriculture without irrigation. Crops are grown without irrigation by accumulating the limited moisture available under them. Due to the lack of rainfall, constant efforts are made to maintain and increase the moisture content of the soil. Features of dry agriculture are that it is cultivated in those areas where there is a lack of moisture for about 8 months in a year. Jaisalmer and Barmer region of Rajasthan receives less than annual rainfall of about 20 cm. Water scarcity is a permanent problem in these areas. The importance of dry agriculture is that in a country like India, pulses are an important source of protein. About 85% of the country's pulses, 75% of oilseeds, 80% maize, and 95% sorghum are grown in dry agricultural regions through dry agriculture techniques.

✅Explanation: Sorghum is often referred to as the "water-sipping crop" due to its high water efficiency. This crop is well adapted to dry environments and requires less water compared to other crops like rice or maize. It can survive in water-scarce regions, making it a suitable choice for areas with limited water resources.🛑Additional Information:  Water use efficiency is the ratio of water used for plant metabolism to the water lost by plants through transpiration. It can be understood as a measure to reduce water wastage from plants by providing only the necessary amount. The crops which have high Water Use Efficiency (WUE) are Pearl millet and sorghum.

✅Explanation: Furaya is credited with developing the Leaf Color Chart (LCC) first. The LCC is a tool used in agriculture, particularly for rice, to help farmers assess the nitrogen status of their crops by comparing the color of the leaves to a standard color chart. It is a simple and cost-effective method for managing nitrogen fertilization. 🛑Additional Information: The Leaf Color Chart (LCC) is a tool used to assess the nitrogen status in crops, particularly rice. It helps farmers to determine whether their crop requires additional nitrogen fertilization for optimal growth and yield. Purpose of the LCC:The LCC is used to estimate the nitrogen content in the leaves of rice plants. Since nitrogen is a crucial nutrient for rice growth, the color of the leaves reflects the nitrogen status.It helps farmers to optimize nitrogen fertilizer application, reducing excess use and minimizing environmental impact.How It Works:The LCC consists of a set of color-coded reference cards that range from light green to dark green. The farmer compares the leaf color of the rice plants to the color chart.Dark green leaves indicate sufficient nitrogen, while light green or yellowing leaves suggest a deficiency.Steps to Use the LCC:Select representative leaves from different parts of the field.Compare the color of the leaves with the LCC cards. Hold the card next to the leaf and match the color.If the leaf color matches a lighter green on the chart, it indicates that the rice crop is nitrogen-deficient and requires additional fertilization.If the color matches a darker green, it means that the nitrogen level in the crop is sufficient.Key Benefits of Using the LCC:Cost-effective: It is a simple, low-cost method for assessing the nitrogen status without the need for expensive laboratory tests.Sustainable farming: By applying nitrogen only when necessary, farmers can avoid over-fertilization, which helps prevent environmental pollution, such as nitrogen runoff into water bodies.Increased yield and efficiency: Proper nitrogen management can improve rice yield while reducing unnecessary fertilizer costs.Limitations:Not suitable for all crops: The LCC is mainly used for rice, and its application may not be as effective for other crops that don't exhibit the same leaf color changes with nitrogen levels.Dependence on visual interpretation: The effectiveness of the LCC relies on the farmer’s ability to correctly interpret leaf color, which can sometimes be subjective.Development:The Leaf Color Chart was first developed by Furaya, who introduced it in Japan in the 1980s. It has since been adapted for use in many countries where rice is grown.